CARL ROGERS AND TRANSPERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY

John Keith Wood 13820 Jaguariuna, Brazil

Our wine existed before what you call the grape and the vine.

Ibn el-Farid

ABSTRACT: The claims that Carl Rogers was what is presently understood as a "transpersonal psychologist" orthat he had converted to a "transpersonal movement" by virtue of various late-in-life experiences are shown to be unwarranted.

To understand his complex relationship with these subjects, it is noted that Rogers did not conform with much of the behavior with which they are associated. Nevertheless, he did have, from the beginning of his work in client-centered therapy, experiences which must be considered congenial with the essence of the "transpersonal."

The purpose of this article is to recognize the distinction between outward appearance and one's legitimate inner experience and to encourage a deeper exploration of this difference.

A small, but prolific, academic industry has built up on the basis of comparing the North American psychologist Carl R. Rogers with other famous figures.

Researchers have linked Rogers' s ideas with those of the psychoanalysts Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung and Heinz Kohut; the psychiatrist Milton Erickson; die anthropologist Gregory Bateson; the communitarian H.C.Boyte; the pedagogue Paulo Freire; the philosopher Martin Buber; and the politician Franklin Roosevelt.

In comparing unlikely activities to Carl Rogers's practice of psychotherapy, the innocent style of Mr. Rogers,a well-known host of an American television show for children, stands at one end. At the other is a psychiatristwho says he applies "client-centered" electroconvulsiveshock treatments and his patients are appreciative.

Carl Rogers's "philosophy" has also been matched with that of Zen Buddhism, the Bach flowerremedies, as well as with the Christian doctrine of original sin, and the New Testament vir-

From an invited presentation for the VI International Holistic and Transpersonal Congress, Aguas de Linddia, Brazil. 7September 1997

John K. Wood

tues. His professional struggle against orthodox psychiatry has reminded a scholar of Martin Luther's stand against the Catholic church.

Rogers's person-centered approach (to psychotherapy; to education; to small encounter groups; and to larger groups assembled for the purpose of improving transnational understanding, exploring intergroup conflicts, and learning the nature of culture and its formation) has also been submitted to such contortions.

A university professor, for example, suggests joining "the person-centered approach theme" and Tai Chi Chuan. Recently I came across proposals for wedding the person-centered approach with Taoism's technique of the "microcosmic orbit" and, no less serious, coupling the person-centered approach with a French physician's philosophy of human development based on the architecture of the human inner ear.

Another related pastime is to construct elaborate arguments to show that Rogers was in the Existentialist line of descension and then scold him for not admitting his debt to his forebears.

The fact is that what are called existential attitudes and behaviors in his approach developed independently of any contact with the philosophy of Existentialism. It was while he was director of the Counseling Center at the University of Chicago and Rogers's major work on psychotherapy was well established that his intellectual trajectory intersected with the Existentialists. "At the urging of my students," he related, "I became acquainted with Martin Buber (first in his writings and then personally) and with Soren Kierkegaard. I felt greatly supported in my new approach, which I found to my surprise was a home-grown brand of existential philosophy." (Rogers, 1980, P-39)

Several times in his career someone pointed out to him similarities between his work and someone else's. When the similarity was what he called "congenial," as in the case of the Existentialists, he used their ready-built concepts to communicate his ideas to a wider audience.

Likewise, both his intention as a psychotherapist and his research methods concentrated on the phenomenon of effective therapy. Thus, one may find many examples of phenomenology in his work. This does not mean that he subscribed to the philosophy beyond where it coincided with his own endeavors.

Following this fashion of making comparisons, in the last ten years there has been an increasing number of suggestions that Rogers had become a transpersonal psychologist in his later years. Many of these assertions imply that he condoned the fringe activities associated with such activity. (See Boainain, 1996, for an example.) This article intends to clarify, as I know it, his relationship with the transpersonal.

WHAT IS TRANSPERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY?

The Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, while writing on the "collective unconscious," is said to have coined the term translated "transpersonal." This word continues to mean something like, "beyond the personal."

Like most psychologies, transpersonal psychology intends to help individuals realize deeper self-understanding, improve the health of their minds and bodies and lead more effective lives. In working with individual clients, transpersonal psychologists are said to be dealing with "more than the mere persona" Thus, they focus their attention on the "whole person: spirit, mind and body."

Though this may also be the goal of other psycho therapies, it is in the means that transpersonal psychologists may differ most from their colleagues. To accomplish their objectives, they may analyze dreams, explore "peak experiences," or delve into paranormal phenomena, such as revelations from "past lives." Other methods may involve provoking altered states of consciousness

Transpersonal Psychology

through the use of drugs, hypnosis, guided fantasies, breathing exercises, meditation, and other "spiritual" practices.

It is unlikely that Rogers would have approved of some of these activities, particularly those in which the therapist exerts authoritarian control over the client. Certainly, he could not be considered a transpersonal psychologist in an unqualified sense.

A GRANDFATHER CLAUSE?

When a new field of endeavor is put under legislative control, the regulative laws usually include a clause that allows people already recognized as qualified in this area to be licensed. This is called, "the grandfather clause."

I have often heard transpersonal psychologists refer to Rogers in this way. The reasoning goes like this: Since humanistic psychology is considered part of the foundation of transpersonal psychology, and since Rogers made a significant contribution to the foundation of humanistic psychology, he is thus a transpersonal psychologist.

Inasmuch as transpersonal psychology may have been partly based on his work, he is logically connected to transpersonal psychology, but not necessarily a transpersonal psychologist. He did not develop his psychology to be a foundation of transpersonal psychology.

MEDIUMS & SPIRIT WORLD

Frequently it has been pointed out that Rogers's interest in the "spirit world," particularly through mediumistic sources, especially after the death of his wife, proves that he had become a convert to a transpersonal perspective and had he had time, would have become a transpersonal psychologist.

What he would have become with more time, I cannot say. However, his reactions to mediums and the "spirit world" are subjects on which I am competent to comment.

Opinions

Rogers formed his opinions from a combination of his own personal experience, what he learned from scientific research, and the reports of informed people. Usually, his conclusions that were not verified by his own direct experience, but "felt right," he regarded as tentative. Even with those he had verified, he was careful about generalizing.

A paper that is sometimes used to support the hypothesis that he had become a transpersonal psychologist - "Do we need 'a' reality?" (Rogers, 1980) - is far from being supportive of this claim. In this article he uses the subject of exceptional mental states to reach a conclusion about a psycho-social phenomenon, not about spirituality. That is, that everyone perceives the world differently and that by appreciating these differences, communication between people could be improved.

Here is how he argues: To begin with, he quotes the physical scientist James Jeans who suggests that, "the Universe begins to look more like a great thought than like a great machine." Rogers also discusses the psychiatrist Carl Jung's discovery of archetypal symbols in dreams; the engineer Robert Monroe's "out-of-the-body experiences;" the medical researcher John Lilly's experiments with altered states of consciousness; and more.

Rogers suggests that these reports are too convincing to dismiss. He is led to the tentative opinion that, "All these accounts indicate that a vast and mysterious universe - perhaps an inner reality, or perhaps a spirit world of which we are all unknowingly a part- seems to exist. "(p. 101-102)

John K. Wood

At this point, the transpersonal leaves the story and the personal enters. I have italicized the word "seems" in this quotation, not only to point out his customary tentativeness, but also because this emphasis allows a preview of the argument which characterizes the rest of his article.

What may have appeared to be Rogers backing transpersonal realities shifts abruptly on this word to his using the possibility of other realities to arrive at a conclusion that has very little to do with a transpersonal orientation.

He concludes that such a variety of subjective experience puts an end to the belief that, "we all know what the real world is." Thus, he is led to his main point: "The only reality I can possibly know is the world as /perceive and experience it at this moment." (p. 102)

The remainder of his paper is an argument that cultural "world views," which were once relatively stable are now in conflict in various parts of the planet. If each person could accept several different "world views," without insisting on one world view, there might be hope for human beings to live together without fear.

This paper is not an endorsement of a "transpersonal movement." It merely uses the transpersonal perspective to emphasize the relativity of human perception and to present one of Rogers's perennial concerns, how to improve interpersonal understanding.

A Real Change of Opinion

Rogers was curious about the "transpersonal," just as he was curious about many other phenomena. He wanted to find out what was going on and communicate to others what he was learning. In 1972, he had published a book about intimate human relationships in an era of "openness," even though he himself was not at that time involved in such relationships. This was the product of curiosity. Something was happening that affected many people. What was it? Could it be understood? Could its facts be friendly?

Until his wife Helen became gravely ill in 1978 or so, he had pretty much confined his interests in the transpersonal to readings and discussions with friends and colleagues. As always, his mind was open. However, on the subject of life-after-death, he maintained a conventional scientific view. A view that, in spite of its pessimistic nature, he had comfortably come to terms with. He commented,

Ten or fifteen years ago I felt quite certain that death was the total end of the person. I still regard that as the most likely prospect; however, it does not seem to me a tragic or awful prospect. I have been able to live my life - not to the full, certainly, but with a satisfying degree of fullness - and it seems natural that my life should come to an end. I already have a degree of immortality in other persons. (Rogers, 1980, p.87)

Nevertheless, the experience of accompanying his wife through her illness until death, did seem to have tentatively modified his opinion. He describes various visions that she had just before dying. He relates psychic contacts some friends reportedly made with her "spirit," after death. His own experience with the transpersonal he confines to the following passage, adding that he would someday say more.

Helen was a great skeptic about psychic phenomena and immortality. Yet, upon invitation, she and I visited a thoroughly honest medium, who would take no money. There, Helen experienced, and I observed, a "contact" with her deceased sister, involving facts that the medium could not possibly have known. The messages were extraordinarily convincing, and all came through the tipping of a sturdy table, tapping out letters. Later, when the medium came to our home and my

Transpersonal Psychology

own table tapped out messages in our living room, I could only be open to an incredible, and

certainly non-fraudulent experience. (Rogers, 1980, p.90)

He concluded, "I now consider it possible that each of us is a continuing spiritual essence lasting over time, and occasionally incarnated in a human body."(Rogers, 1980, p.92)

Evaluating Experience

One can note that, in this case, Rogers's evaluation of the psychic phenomenon was based on three questions.

The scientific question, Was the physical evidence reliable? was answered by die observation that the table-tapping seemed legitimate, because it was reproduced in his own home, where a deception could not be rigged.
The moral question, Was the medium taking money from the client? was settled since the medium did no t ask for money. (Though she may have accepted a donation, if offered.)
The spiritual question. Were the spirits and their messages convincing? was responded to by noting that, the messages were "extraordinarily convincing."

Rogers may have had some reservations, since he was reluctant to say more on the subject until he could reflect more carefully on this experience. In 1978, he was intent on experiencing more directly this subject, perhaps in order to clear up his doubts. In any case, Rogers, Maureen O'Hara and I went to Sao Paulo and visited several Brazilian psychic researchers and mediums. On this trip, we found additional answers to these three questions.

Was the physical evidence reliable?

Rogers quickly lost interest in the physical aspect, for two reasons. First, it is so often inconclusive. As I had discovered in India, a magician could charm a snake or survive a life-threatening ordeal as a result of rigorous physical training that did not necessarily involve spirituality. Second, Rogers was really interested in spirit messages directed to him personally.

The following account is illustrative:

In February, we visited an institute devoted to the study of the phenomena of poltergeist and reincarnation. The laboratory was full of rocks (that had reportedly rained down on the roofs of houses) and scorched panels from doors of wardrobe closets (that had been said to have burst into flame spontaneously). These catastrophes usually occurred in the houses of pubescent girls. The chief researcher had hundreds of reports from witnesses-who had been interviewed regarding these phenomena. Often a sorcerer was said to have been involved at the behest of a jilted lover.

Examining a rock collection did not allow us to conclude anything about the psychic event. However, since Rogers's main interest was in messages from the "spirit world," the researcher agreed to put us in contact with what he described as a "remarkable woman": normal in every aspect, married to an engineer. When she entered into trance she was taken by a thirteenth-century gypsy with characteristics completely unlike hers.

Was the medium taking money from the client?

A few days later, we went to dinner at the home of the medium who die poltergeist researcher had arranged for us to meet. Her dyed, flaming red hair, fanned out nearly to the width of her shoulders. Long, painted fingernails. Silver and turquoise bracelets climbed up to her elbow. In spite of previous reports, her low-cut, gauss-silk, see-through dress in a busy flower pattern, also agreed with what I imagined a gypsy might wear.

We were shown a slide presentation on reincarnation and a case study that had been presented at an international conference. As I had no way to objectively evaluate their data, I decided, for the sake of learning a bit more, to accept their hypotheses and their conclusions. "Very well," I in

John K. Wood

quired, "what more can you tell us about this phenomenon?" "At the end of successive reincarnations, what happens to the spirit?" "What is the grander significance of this process?"

The discussion was brought to an abrupt end. Everyone said goodnight. Maureen O'Hara, who had similar questions, and I were taken in one car back to our hotel. Rogers was taken in another. However, though our car actually took us to the hotel, his drove around the block and back to the house for a seance. Although our curiosity was genuine and not primarily intended to challenge their beliefs, Maureen and I had evidently been seen as skeptics.

When Rogers arrived back at the hotel, he told us that the medium had assumed a very complicated yoga posture, entered in trance, and told him that he had been a priest in an earlier life. This priest had persecuted people and did not believe in the soul living on. He was a very young spirit and had a long road ahead.

Then she urged him, as an important figure, to write about the spirits in his books in order to give support to their work. The thirteenth-century gypsy did not ask for money. She evidently wished to receive payment in a different way: by soliciting advertising from a world-famous author. Rogers was not very pleased with this spirit-world marketing tactic.

Were the spirits and their messages convincing?

The first experience we had with Brazilian mediums was in 1977 or so when one came to La Jolla, claiming that the spirit of the dead artist Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec had contacted him and told him to get in touch with Carl Rogers. The medium gave several demonstrations whereby, after entering into a trance, he painted on canvas, using his fingers (and toes). This was done in a dark room. He claimed that the spirits of the great masters "waited in line, clamoring to enter his body and express themselves." Indeed, his paintings did resemble the style of the artists he claimed were "riding" him as a cavalo.

Rogers had little to say as to the phenomenon of painting in the dark in the style of dead masters, but he was interested in what Toulouse-Lautrec had to say to him. I don't know what the spirit-message was, but having received it he was a bit disappointed by its generality.

In Sao Paulo in 1978, that was also the case. One afternoon, for example, Carl and I visited an aged baiana (an African-Brazilian from the state of Bahia) who spread a cupful of buzios (sea shells) on the green oil cloth of her kitchen table and "read" their message for Carl. I did not make notes, but I do remember that what she had to say was again too general to be convincing. In messages from the "spirit world," Rogers was always looking for details only he would have known.

Although we were unable to find convincing messages from apparently reliable mediums, we did find examples of clearly unreliable spirits. One night, we went to a Spiritist Center where spirit-healing sessions were held. A preacher gave a long and tedious sermon on the "final message of Jesus." Then six persons at a time were taken to a room where, seated back to back, we had our "auras cleansed" with "passes," sweeping motions made over the body (without touching) with the palms of the hands of a medium.

Back in the main room of the church, we witnessed the spirit-healer beginning to work. The mediums sat around a large table and incorporated the spirits left behind by the people who had passed through. Each time that a medium shook in trance and a "spirit" became manifest, the healer "facilitated" it's entry into the "spirit-world."

One such session went like this. A female medium began to speak in a deep male voice. The healer asked, "What is your name?" "Jorge," the medium replied in the same hoarse voice. "Why are you bothering this person?" the healer inquired. "I am not bothering anyone," was the reply. "You are bothering her. You are dead and you should go where you belong." "I am not dead." "Yes, you are. Place your hands on your chest." The medium felt her breasts. "Oh, my God, I

Transpersonal Psychology

must be dead," replied the male-sounding voice. The healer directed "Jorge" to look in a certain direction where he would see a cloud bank. He ordered him to walk toward it, where he would be met by his departed family and friends. Soon the medium's face softened. She took a deep breath and opened her eyes.

Until then, we had only heard from supposedly knowledgeable "spirits," giving sagely advice, reporting news from departed loved ones. Here was an unexpected twist: a spirit who not only did not know about others, he did not even know about himself. I certainly would question advice I got from an entity who did not even know that he was dead. Carl had similar feelings. ⁽¹⁾

OUTWARD OBSERVATION

In summary, the fact dial Rogers was in general sympathetic towards experiences that increased human awareness (a good deal of what transpersonal psychology concerns itself with), that he visited mediums, that he maintained an open mind regarding mysteries, does not mean that he had become a transpersonal psychologist or a leading figure in a "transpersonal movement."

As he had always done, he used the concepts and language current in his culture to describe his ideas and put forth his arguments. To describe phenomena whose meaning escaped the neutral scientific language he preferred, he adopted some terms common to transpersonal psychology, such as referring to "presence" or his "transcendental core" or his "inner spirit." Nevertheless, his principle psychological concerns and arguments remained the same. Furthermore, he did not change in any essential way his method of psychotherapy or working with groups.

Thus, Rogers did not become a transpersonal psychologist as far as outward appearance can be evaluated. He continued to be a client-centered therapist with the same intentions as he had always had.

INNER EXPERIENCE

Although he admitted the possibility Chat "each of us is a continuing spiritual essence lasting over time," he did not become a transpersonal psychologist in his interior experience because he had already experienced the transpersonal, from early on, in his psychotherapy work.

Two important factors concerning Rogers's practice of psychotherapy and his "person-centered approach" to other endeavors indicate characteristics compatible with mysticism.

The mediumistic nature of his psychotherapy interviews in which he could perceive beyond the everyday reality.
His belief in and reliance on a hidden order in the universe.

The Mediumistic Nature of His Psychotherapy

When engaged in psychotherapy, Rogers concentrated his attention on the subjective world of the client, trying to understand - in league with the person - the meaning that that person's experience had for him or her.

In centering on this unique person, he was often surprised. Not only did he become aware of the meaning of another's personal subjectivity, he also became conscious of something that was not easily classified as "personal."

Clearly involving a mediumistic trance, Rogers described his experience as one that,

starts with, and is preceded by, settling into this attitude of "I want to understand every single thing

that [the client is] saying; I want to really sense what it means to [him or her]."

John K. Wood

I feel [in the subsequent moments] all in one piece, as though I am all focused. Yet, in ordinary life, I think, "God, how am I going to get everything done before I leave for Europe." You know, pretty well fragmented.

It is a very existential moment because, when I finish a really good interview, my memory for that interview is often very bad. Later, when I think about it, some parts of it will come back; but the intellectual side of me is not very much present. Well, the intellectual side is there too, but it is all focused in this moment with no intent of thinking about it, with no intent to remember it. So, all my abilities are there, I think.

The best periods in therapy are timeless moments. I am not aware of time. Except for the fact that if I have another appointment at such and such a time, there is some background awareness of that. In an interview in front of a group, pretty soon the group disappears completely. They are not there. It is just the two of us. (Monteiro dos Santos, 1985)

Why do I call this a "mediumistic trance"? Because that is what it is, by commonly accepted definitions. Rogers participates with his clients in an experience that, for him, transcends time, as well as the boundaries of die presumed identity of both client and therapist and of the immediate environment.

Through a single-pointed attention to "every single thing" the therapist's (and doubtless the client's) "generalized reality orientation" is relaxed, allowing (among other things) conflicting values to co-exist. (Shor, 1959) Therefore, a client's very different opinions or perceptions were doubtless easier for Rogers to accept uncritically than may have been possible in his "everyday mental frame of reference."

In this state, Rogers feels "all in one piece" as he "settles into" a holistic mode of perception. Losing awareness of his surroundings and even the sense of time, he demonstrates that he is experiencing, by definition, a "trance state." (Ludwig, 1967)

Many would water-down this expression to, "an altered state of consciousness," or anything else that might suggest that it was not weird. And, in fact, it was not. The state in which Rogers seemed to be operating is closest to what William James (1890) has referred to as, "the lower phases of mediumistic possession," such as playing a musical instrument, where, "the normal self is not excluded from conscious participation in the performance, though [the] initiative seems to come from elsewhere."

Thus, this state is not that deep trance that possesses the person, capturing his will and incapacitating his thinking ability. Nevertheless, it is an "exceptional state of consciousness," (James, 1896) in which Rogers's critical faculties are fully functioning, but the initiative seems to come from the interrelationship of individual minds. A phenomenon that Rogers called "empathic understanding" in the context of psychotherapy.

In this state, Rogers was able to be more, not less, aware than at other times. He verifies this when he relates that he never felt "as whole, or as much a person" as he did in his therapeutic interviews. (Rogers, 1957)

No one has described the complementary functioning of the analytic and holistic modes of mind encountered in psychotherapy better than Rogers (1980) himself when he noted his direct experience, thusly,

Beyond the immediate message of the person, no matter what that might be, there is the universal.... So there is both the satisfaction of hearing this person and also the satisfaction of hearing one's self in touch with what is universally true, (p.8)

Transpersonal Psychology

One of the most innocent and at the same time most striking verifications of this blending of awareness with another person, is a client's description:

We were mostly me working together on my situation as I found it. (Rogers, 1949)

Furthermore, this type of experience was apparently a quite normal part of the early practice of client-centered

therapy. Rogers (1961) commented, matter-of-factly, that, When there is this complete unity, singleness, fullness of experiencing in the relationship, then it acquires the "out-of- this-world" quality which therapists have remarked upon, a sort of trancelike feeling in the relationship from which both the client and I emerge at the end of the hour, as if from a deep well or tunnel... a timeless living in the experience which is between the client and me. (p.202)

This experience indeed has become so familiar to client-centered therapists that many find it difficult to see it's implications outside of their own framework. One veteran psychotherapist remarked, "I don't see anything special about that. It's just empathy."

When Rogers was deeply involved in group work, in which the nature of empathic understanding may not have changed but the way it manifested was often radically different from in individual counseling, he continued to rely on what were possibly extra-sensory perceptions. For example, he related,

I trust the feelings, words, impulses, fantasies, that emerge in me. In this way I am using more than my conscious self, drawing on some of the capacities of the whole organism.... While a responsible business executive is speaking, I may suddenly have the fantasy of the small boy he is carrying around within himself- the small boy that he was, shy inadequate, fearful - a child he endeavors to deny, of whom he is ashamed. I am wishing that he would love and cherish this youngster.... Often this brings a surprising depth of reaction and profound insights. (Rogers, 1970, p.53)

Is this "fantasy" or "intuition" (or what the psychologist Jules Seeman (1997) refers to as emergent "precognitive organismic processes" different from similar insights, derived when one's awareness is divided between inner sensations and outer impressions while scanning sea shells scattered over a kitchen table? On hearing about "empathy," one could just as well imagine a pai de santo from Macumba or another mystical cult saying, "I don't see anything special about that, that's just consulting the spirits."

While Rogers (1955) had acknowledged that he experienced an "almost mystical subjectivity" as a therapist, he had always sought a conservative scientific explanation for the process of psychotherapy. Nevertheless, as he was also accustomed to using vernacular expressions to transmit his thoughts more clearly, he eventually resorted to "new-age" terms to explain the perennial experience of empathic understanding.

He states,
When I am at my best, as a group facilitator or a therapist, I discover another characteristic, I find
that when I am closest to my inner, intuitive self, when I am somehow in touch with the unknown
in me, when perhaps I am in a slightly altered state of consciousness in the relationship, then
whatever I do seems lobe full of healing. Then simply my presence is releasing and helpful.
There is nothing I can do to force this experience, but when I can relax and be close to the
transcendental core of me, then I may behave in strange and impulsive ways in the relationship,
ways which I cannot justify rationally, which have nothing to do with my thought processes. But
these strange behaviors turn out to be right, in some odd way. At those

John K. Wood

moments it seems that my inner spirit has reached out and touched the inner spirit of the other. Our relationship transcends itself, and has become apart of something larger. Profound growth and healing and energy are present. (Rogers, 1985)

His legitimate, even mystical, experience had not changed. His manner of explaining it had become less precise, moving closer to what one might find in current fashion. Doubtless, this development has encouraged the trend to classify him within the transpersonal psychology camp.

Belief In a Hidden Order in The Universe

Rogers's worldview integrated the "therapist" and the "client" in the therapeutic or group activity. In this regard, he relied on what he called the formative directional tendency, which he described as,

an evolutionary tendency toward greater order, greater complexity, greater inter-relatedness. In humankind, this tendency exhibits itself as the individual moves from a single-cell origin to complex organic functioning, to knowing and sensing below the level of consciousness, to a conscious awareness of the organism and the external world, to a transcendent awareness of the harmony and unity of the cosmic system, including humankind. (Rogers, 1980, p. 133)

In summary, Rogers did not become a transpersonal psychologist in essence, because he always was one. In each particular moment and in his life as a whole he represented the intentions of transpersonal psychology, as, "the study and application of various levels of consciousness in the direction of a fundamental unity of being." (Garcia, 1997)

AN APPROACH

Rogers's world-view and his practice of psychotherapy should be understood as part of an integrated approach that he cultivated over his entire life.

His (person-centered) approach evolved over time out of a specific stance or way of being, which can be described as consisting not only of certain beliefs and attitudes, but also abilities that improved with experience and varied in form when dealing with different phenomena (such as psychotherapy, education, small and large group work).

His attitude was, "not in truth already known or formulated but in the process by which truth is dimly perceived, tested and approximated." (Rogers, 1974) He maintained a tolerance for uncertainty or ambiguity. Keats's (1899, p.277) Shakespeare is the example: That is, to have negative capability...capable of being in uncertainties, mysteries, doubts, without any irritable reaching after fact and reason.

And, he was willing, within reason, to be changed by the experience: hi the vein that Martin Buber (1966) had proposed,

I felt I have not the right to want to change another, if I am not open to be changed by him as far as it is legitimate. Rogers's (1980) "way of being" was both the means and the end: he tried to do what was necessary to help people to know and be a true self.

Transpersonal Psychology

CONCLUSION

Rogers's relationship to transpersonal psychology is complex. But not so difficult to understand. He did not become a transpersonal psychologist. The criteria derived from outward appearance: such as his role in the development of humanistic psychology, his visits to mediums and attempts to explain his own mediumistic experience in psychotherapy in the new-age language, do not justify placing him in the transpersonal psychology camp as it is currently constituted. His attitude, as towards most phenomena, was curiosity and an eagerness to learn more. He may have been congenial to transpersonal psychology but he was a client-centered psychotherapist.

On the other hand, the fact that, as mystics are also said to do, he based his work on a belief in a hidden order in the universe and entered exceptional states of consciousness in his psychotherapeutic interviews, also suggests that he did not become a transpersonal psychologist. He always was one in the sense that his personal experience was compatible with what may also be the essence of transpersonal psychology.

In other words, Rogers's personal, interpersonal and transpersonal approach was the same: He turned the best part of himself toward the best part of the other in order that something of lasting value might be accomplished that none could have done alone. Not his researches with spiritists, but the accumulation of his life work, led him to conclude,

I believe there is some kind of a transcendent organizing influence in the universe which operates

in man as well... My present very tentative view [of humans] is that perhaps there is an

essential person which persists through time, or even through eternity. (Bergin, 1991)

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Benson, H. (1996) Timeless healing. NY: Scribners.

Bergin, A.E. (1991) Values and religious issues in psychotherapy and mental health. American Psychologist, 46, (4) 394-403.

Boainain, E. (1996) [Transcentering; Becoming transpersonal.] Transcentrando: Tornar-se transpessoal. Elementos para uma aproximacao entre o Abordagem Centrada na Pessoa e a Psicologia Transpessoal. Unpublished thesis. Universidade de Sao Paulo, Instituto de Psicologia. Buber, M. The knowledge of man: A philosophy of the interhuman. M.S. Friedman (ed.) NY: Harper & Row. Garcia, Vera P. Saldanha. (l997) Personal communication. 7 August. James, W. (1890) The principles of psychology. NY: Henry Holt. James, W.(1896) Exceptional Mental States-The Lowell Lectures. Eugene Taylor(Ed.). University of Massachusetts Press. Keats, J. (1899) The complete poetical -works of Keats. Boston; Houghton Mifflin. Ludwig, A. (1967) The trance. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 8(l) p.13. Monteira dos Santos, A. (1985) Momentos magicos: A natureza do processo energetico humano. Brasilia. Rogers. C.R. (1949) The attitude and orientation of the counselor in client-centered therapy. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 13. 82-94. Rogers, C.R. (1955) Persons or science? A philosophical question. The American Psychologist. 10 (7) 267-278. Rogers, C.R. (1957) Dialogue between Martin Buber and Carl Rogers. University of Michigan. April 18.

Rogers, C.R. (1961) On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Rogers, C.R. (1970) On encounter groups. NY: Harper & Row.

Rogers, C.R. (1974) Remarks on the future of client-centered therapy. In D.A.Wexler & L.N. Rice (eds.) Innovations in client-centered therapy. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Rogers, C.R. (1980) A way of being. Boston; Houghton Mifflin. Rogers, C.R. (1985) A client-centered/person-centered approach to therapy. In I.L. Kutush & A.Wolf (Eds.) Psychotherapists'

casebook: Theory and technique in practice. San Francisco: Josey-Bass. Seeman, J. (1997) Personal communication. For an overview of his systems model of health, see: Seeman, J. (l989) Toward a model of positive health. American Psychologist. 44(8) 1099-1109.

John K. Wood

Shor, R. (1959) Hypnosis and the concept of the generalized reality orientation. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 13. 582-602.

NOTES

(l) Apparently, the mediumistic trance may be legitimate, but it does not necessarily convey a useful message. My own opinion is that certain so-called spiritual activities are useful for some people at certain tunes. For example, in the Philippine Islands I witnessed psychic healers pretending to enter a patient's body and, (in my judgment) through slight-of-hand, producing "bloodied tissue" which was drawn out as if diseased tissue from the patient.

From a western scientific point of view, this was a hoax. Nevertheless, the healer was unapologetic. From the shamanic viewpoint, one might say, it is the presence of this material (no matter from where it comes) that helps to draw out of the body the spiritual "tissue" that causes the real illness.

Others explain this procedure as a valuable part of the placebo effect. The patient's "remembered wellness" (Benson, 1996) for self-healing is provoked by a (culturally approved) ritual that both he or she and the healer believe must take place for healing to occur.

Was the operation a fake? Yes.

Was it real? Yes.

Was it effective? Sometimes. Can more be said of most psychology?

⁽²⁾For substantial challenging criticism and thoughtful observations offered during the preparation of this article, I wish to thank Dr. Howard Kirschenbaum and Dr. John Shlien from the United States and Dra. Vera P. Saldanha Garcia, president of the Luso-Brazilian Transpersonal Association from Brazil.

TOWARDS 'AFRICAN' EDUCATION
FACILITATING EDUCATION CHANGE

Brigitte Smit

University of Pretoria, South Africa

"Change is the law of life. Those, who look only

to the past or present, are certain to miss the

future."

John F. Kennedy

INTRODUCTION

The South African education system is in a process of far-reaching restructuring and comprehensive transformation. This educational change evolves as a dynamic and complex issue in education and may be threatening, particularly as it challenges the most deeply embedded assumptions. One such reform undertaking is the South African Schools Act, which was passed on 29 October 1996. Moreover, after extensive consultation, the 'Curriculum 2005' is to be implemented in 1998, introducing "a new curriculum to make kids want to learn, shifting the spotlight onto the learner" (Sunday Times, 30 March 1997). Despite the fact that the emphasis should become the focus of the learner, there is a great need to build professional capacity among teachers.

Theoretically, educational policy change may well be implemented through laws and new structures. However, a willing practical participation and a commitment from teachers is also required, considering that particularly on the personal level, teachers interpret, and act as filters, influence, affect, mediate and relate to educational change, individually and collectively. Successful implementation of new education policies through programs, processes and innovation is a formidable task. The process of facilitation offers some opportunity for processing educational changes, supporting and encouraging teachers, as their meaning and responses impact on the tangible policy implementation.

A PREFACE TO THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

The initial focus is, what does South African education bring out of teachers; the best or the worst they can be? Are teachers' perceptions, their truths of education policy change and uncertainties to their advantage, or to their disadvantage? Does the traditional conception of teaching or imparting of knowledge can make sense in a changing environment? In the context of educational change, Rogers and Freiberg (1994:152) offer some sound advice to teachers:

Brigitte Smit

"The person who has realised that no knowledge is secure, that only the process of seeking
knowledge gives a basis of security. Changingness, a reliance on process rather than on static
knowledge, is the only thing that makes sense as a goal for education in the modern world."

For the purpose of this presentation, educational policy change which is an immense intricate and complex issue, will not be dealt with in the context of the intentions of policy makers, the process and the actual effect or outcome as envisioned in the curriculum and teaching approach. Instead I wish to explore the possibilities of change facilitation for teachers as they deal with proposed changes. Facilitation workshops could offer opportunities for teachers to become aware of their attitudes, values and beliefs, and their responses, resistances, denials and simply avoidance. Teachers' meaning in what they do and think, primarily predetermines their responses and the outcomes of the proposed education policy change. In addition, I believe that these changes not only involve variations over time in the relationships among individuals, groups and societies, structural changes such as technological and institutional developments, but also intrapersonal, interpersonal and intergroup processing in search for new meanings. Education policy change has corresponding human dimensions, constructed and created personal meaning. However top-down mandates for policy change do frequently leave teachers out of the reform process, discounting often that they are the targets of reform although they exert relatively little if any control over policy.

FACILITATION AND THE PERSON-CENTERED APPROACH

Workshops for teachers with a person-centered approach, grounded on the assumption that human beings tend to move toward wholeness and self-actualisation can support policy implementation through participatory methods. The person-centered approach is best considered as a 'way of being' rather than a 'way of doing', and is captured best in Rogers'(1986:199) own words:

"The person-centered approach, then, is primarily a way of being that finds its expression in attitudes and behavio(u)rs that create a growth-producing climate. It is a basic philosophy rather than simply a technique or a method. When this philosophy is lived, it helps the person expand the development of his or her own capacities. When it is lived, it also stimulates constructive change in others. It empowers the individual, and when this personal power is sensed, experience shows that it tends to be used for personal and social transformation."

During a workshop a growth-promoting climate is established in the group by the facilitator, creating a relationship based on certain attitudes such as accurate empathic understanding, acceptance, non-possessive warmth, caring and genuineness. As the facilitator projects these attitudes and an accepting and caring climate emerges, it is presumed that teachers will drop their defenses and work toward personally meaningful goals. What permeates here is Rogers' basic trust in the human ability to move forward if the appropriate conditions fostering growth and change are present. The group process with a person-centered approach can be instrumental in empowering and enabling individuals by offering them a place and space to explore and express their inner characteristics. The process of facilitation is conducive in creating an accommodating climate and an opportunity for exploring meaning, individual growth and collective educational change.

For effective education policy change implementation, teachers would have to 'see' and believe that change is indeed possible. The facilitator of the group could for example focus on the resistances to change within the group and assisting members to realise when and why they are holding back. Teachers would be encouraged to express their feelings and expectations, focusing on themselves and their feelings of stress, avoidance and denial. The facilitator creates a safe climate where teachers can talk directly to one another, and where risks may be taken for example

"Afr-I-Can" Education

expressing conflict openly. An interfactional style of teacher to teacher is fostered versus a teacher to leader approach. The facilitator can also express some interpretations to create sensitized airiness, which can either be directed at the group as a whole or at the individual. Power-related issues are often either ignored, or they are verbally confronted, sometimes even through verbal abuse, most visibly via gender, class, race and authority issues, within and even beyond the group like human and social issues from the wider society. These responses require deep empathy and unconditional respect for individual teachers.

On a personal level, teachers can learn more about themselves through experience to find their meaning. This may reflect the growth of the individual beyond normality to full functioning, which is characterized by the acceptance of responsibility for decision making, for the experience of emotions and feelings, and for the professional performance of tasks. The quality of work done by teachers is a direct function of the level of self-development and the optimal functioning, which impact on education policy change.

TEACHERS' MEANING AND CHANGE

The world appears within a context of meaning, suggesting that experience of education policy change be also in personal terms (Alan 1990:189). In the education system, teachers are the most prominent persons mediating policy change, as they become part of the interactive process of reflection and action with regard to the intentions of educational change via the education policy and their personal response within a particular historical context. This constitutes an important link for understanding the eventual effect of change for from a person-centered approach people are not seen to perceive, represent or reflect the world from the outside. Instead everything from the 'outside' is determined from within. Reality depends on the 'inner reality' (Goldsmith 1989:52-54) that is to say,"...we're not driven by reality, but by our perception of reality," (Robbins 1992:69) and unless teachers' reality-perceptions are not understood, one can not really fully understand. Reality is not something 'out there', reality is something inside the head and in the heart.

In this context, Fallen (1982:ix) in The Meaning of Educational Change argues that for attempts of educational change to be successful, cognisance would have to be taken of what this change looks like from the point of view of the individual teacher, student, parent, administrator and the actions, reactions and responses of each. In addition it would be viewed in terms of the interrelatedness of individuals within a web of meaning partly structured by the historical context of the particular person or group of persons (Berkhout& Smit 1997:4),

Webs of meanings also depend on whether teachers are working as isolated individuals or whether they are exchanging ideas and support as a group, and experiencing positive feelings about their work. In participatory workshops, where experiences are shared, explored together and listened to, collegiality, open communication, trust, support and assistance, interaction and morale may be attained.

Change initiatives in education cannot discount dealings with emotional dimensions of change as experienced by teachers, which are often ignored in change processes. In a similar vogue, change may produce a sense of uneasiness, a lack of direction, a sense of incompleteness, insecurity and a lack of closure or boundaries. Educational change involves most likely a continuous process of 'letting go', of what may be perceived as a state of disequilibrium, emotionally and intellectually. Loss of the status quo presents not only logical, intellectual problems, but also the emotional problems associated with anguish, conflict and frustration. I believe that the often ignored psychological impact of education policy change which hinders its goals, can be explored and optimised through facilitative methods.

Brigitte Smit

Apart from the public discourse, the legislation and communication of policies for education, depends on what teachers think and do and on their personal disposition and feelings with regard to change or policies proposing change. The manner they mediate and act on policy proposals has a major impact on the eventual effects. Fullan (1982:120) considers this understanding "... the subjective world - the phenomenology - of the incumbents (is) a necessary precondition for the engaging in any change effort with them ...".

Facilitators know that change occurs at different rates and paces and its omnipresence is now a i constant feature of our lives. Attitudinal change may lag behind technological and scientific change, creating great difficulties in reconciling old values to new circumstances. This attitudinal lag is a major challenge in organizations creating a dissonance between change itself and our capacities to make sense of it (Whitaker 1993:25). In these attempts of sense making processes in transitional times, teachers still enjoy the options of choices. For those who crave stability, order and predictability there is at least one choice and that is to leave, or alternatively not just to accept, but to embrace the stormy weather, these uncertain times. There are no guarantees about anything, even in education. No certainties, no guarantees, only immense changes in education is what Sunter (1996:72-73) illustrates. Using a comparison between 1940 and the 1990's of disciplinary problems in American schools, he illustrates some of the complexities faced by teachers -not only in the US. In 1940 these included, talking out of turn, chewing gum, making a noise, running in hallways, queue-jumping, ignoring dress code, and litter. Disciplinary problems of the 1990s are however quite different: drug abuse, alcohol abuse, sexual behaviour, (attempted) suicide, rape, sexual assault, robbery, theft and physical assault. Apart from these temporal changes, which is also part of the context in which teachers in South Africa have to educate, they are also expected to facilitate various changes that would contribute towards the realisation of newly accepted democratic ideals of society.

WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE: THE AFR-I-CAN OPTION

You can't teach an old dog new tricks nor can a leopard change its spots. Whatever view is held, experience of the world at large teaches us that we live in the midst of ongoing pervasive change. Change in South Africa is viewed differently by various persons or groups of persons and is succinctly seen by Lascaris & Lipken (1993:1) in terms of contrasts, as either the

"Most thrilling country in the world or the most traumatic, depending on the individual perspective. It is a complex fusion of paradox: First World, yet Third World; immensely wealthy, yet agonising impoverished; the most advanced country on Planet Earth, yet one of its most backward; precisely the same as other countries, yet precisely different; teeming with awesome opportunity, yet fraught with insurmountable problems; everything is changing, yet nothing has changed".

According to them (ibid. 49-51) South Africa will always be a polarised society. Only now there is no polarising between black and white but between magic and tragic. It is no coincidence that South Africa has the highest rate of both miracles and murders per capita in the civilised world. Reality has hit home as they (ibid. 47) illustrate:

"We have seen that the pace of change, the violence, the uncertainty, the in
creased competition, the collapse of the Rand, the corruption, the friction be-
tween government, business and labour, the changing of the rules, the ongoing
corporate downsizing, the see-saw between black aspirations and white para-
noia, have all contributed to the national plague of fear and fatigue." (Lipken &
Lascaris 1996:47)

"Afr-I-Can" Education

An inner resourceful slate of mind, emotional mastery, proactive responses and the power to make every life experience a learning encounter can be accomplished through facilitation processes. To take responsibility (the ability to choose a response; Covey 1992:71) to celebrate and embrace change and turbulence by using its momentum to turbo-boost our thinking, challenge the assumptions, liberate the emotions and to dare the rational logic is the 'response-able¹choice in change facilitation, the 'Afr-I-Can option'. Educators do have a choice and they can decide whether to be inspired or deflated. They need not be highjacked by their emotions. At best their IQ determines about 20 % to the factors that determine their ability to cope with life and change, the other 80% is determined by their (EQ) emotional quotient (Lipken & Lascaris 1996:103). This is the ability of self-motivation, persistence, impulse control, and emotion regulation in dealing with others and in making others feel special by overtly demonstrating their care for them.

IN CONCLUSION

At the heart of education transition, is the desire to prepare children and young adults for a transforming society of the 21st century, a world for our children, which changes so much faster than our schools. Any discussion of educational change, and its constructed diverse meaning, requires that educational researchers locale themselves accurately within the area of diverse agendas before they are able to make useful proposals within the field of education. Educational policy change can be facilitated through inspired participatory dialogue and understanding between the theoretical, practical and emotional components of change, between the barriers that inhibit change and the factors that assist to overcome those barriers.

REFERENCES

Alant. Cornie et al. 1990. Sociology and society. Humanistic Profile. Halfway House: Southern.
Berkhout, Sarie J & Smit Brigitte. 1997. Towards 'Afr-I-Can' education in hard times. Paper read al the Annual Conference of the

Southern African Comparative and History of Education Society, 10-12, January 1997, Livingstone, Zambia.

Covey, Steven R. 1992. The seven habits of highly effective people. London: Simon & Schuster.

Fullan, Michael. 1982. The meaning of' educational change. New York: Teachers College Press.

Goudsmil, Arno 1989. Self-organization in psychotherapy - Demarcation of a new perspective. Berlin: Springer Verlag

Lascaris, Reg & Lipken, Mike. 1993. Revelling in the wild. Cape Town: Human and Rousseau Tafelberg.

Lipken, Mike & Lascaris, Reg. 1996. Fire and water. The power of passion, the force of flow. Sandton: Zebra Press.

Robbins, Anthony. 1992. Awaken the giant within. London: Simon & Schuster.

Rogers, Carl. 1986. Client-centered therapy. In Kutash, I.L. & Wolf, A. (Eds), Psychotherapist's casebook. San Francisco: Jossey-

Bass. Rogers, Carl R. & Freiberg H. Jerome 1994. Freedom to learn. New York: Macmillan College Publishing Company. Sunter, Clem. 1996. The high road: Where are we now? Cape Town: Tafelberg Human & Rousseau. Whitaker, Patrick. 1993. Managing change in schools. Buckingham: Open University Press.

NOTES

Paper read at the 12th Annual Conference of the Association for the Development of the Person-Centered Approach, 22-26 May 1997, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, and USA.

The Person-Centered Journal, Volume 5, Issue 1, 1998 Printed in the

CRITERIA FOR MAKING EMPATHIC RESPONSES IN CLIENT-CENTERED THERAPY

Barbara Temaner Brodley, Ph.D.

Illinois School of Professional Psychology

The criteria for communicating empathic understanding described in this paper are based on my work as a client-centered therapist. As my therapy evolved, I only gradually identified these criteria and recognized that they express the nondirective attitude that informs my practice. An early version of the paper was prepared for the First International Forum on the Person-Centered Approach in Mexico in 1982. An excerpt was published in the ADPCA newsletter, Renaissance, in 1984. In 1986 Carl Rogers published his article on "reflection of feelings" which gave support to my thesis that the client-centered therapist's intention in responding empathically is to verify understanding, not to manipulate the client's process nor to foster any therapist goal for the client. The fundamental nondirectiveness in client-centered work seems to be difficult for some students to understand or, perhaps, to believe. My hope that this paper will help to clarify the meaning of the nondirective attitude in empathic interaction process as well as clarify the criteria for overt empathic responding in client-centered therapy.

Client-centered therapy is a therapeutic approach theoretically based on the idea that all persons possess an inherent actualizing tendency. The actualizing concept involves an assumption that the motivation and capacities for personal growth, and the particular directions that evolve for such growth, arise from within the individual person (Rogers, 1951; 1980). Given this assumption of the client's inherent potential for growth and change, the therapist's function is to experience and express the therapeutic attitudes - congruence, unconditional positive regard and empathic understanding of the client's internal frame of reference - in relation to the client. Successful therapy also requires that the client perceive the therapist's empathic understanding and unconditional positive regard.

In the client-centered approach, the client is viewed as the best expert about the client (Bozarth, 1985; Bozarth & Brodley, 1986) and the "architect" of the process (Raskin, 1988). The therapist's nondirective attitude (Raskin, 1947) expresses trust in and respect for the client and a value to protect the client's autonomy and self-determination. It is an aspect of the therapist's personal philosophy of persons (Rogers, 1951, Chapter 2). In therapy, the nondirective attitude functions importantly to enhance the client's personal power and sense of self-value.

The client-centered therapist's overall goal is to facilitate a therapeutic climate in the client's experience. It does this through an interpersonal relationship wherein the therapist experiences particular psychological attitudes which may be perceived by the client. These attitudes, when perceived, promote therapeutic change and personal growth while they function to protect and enhance the client's autonomy and self-regulation. This general conception of the therapist's goal emphasizes the non-directive aspect of the client-centered philosophy.

Empathic Responses in Client-Centered Therapy

As a consequence of holding this general notion of the therapist's goal and its emphasis on non-directiveness, when doing client-centered psychotherapy, I implicitly give myself the following instructions: (1) To experience and personally embody, as much as I can, the therapeutic attitudes of congruence, unconditional positive regard and empathic understanding in relation to the client, (2) To express acceptant empathic understanding to the client¹, often through explicit empathic responses, in order to check my inner understandings (Temaner, 1982; Rogers, 1986). And (3) to be willing to address the client's questions and requests as a person to a person without making assumptions (and without selectively responding according to such assumptions) about the possible benefits or harm to the client in getting honest answers. These rather simple sounding instructions result in a very complex, variable and sometimes difficult sequence of events and experiences for both therapist and client. Nevertheless, over many years I have continued to find these instructions useful, and the resulting experiences to be therapeutic - to be helpful to clients in fostering their growth and healing.

The question addressed by this paper arises out of one of Rogers' (1957) conditions for therapeutic change. He expressed this essential therapeutic condition in two different ways. In 1957 his theory stated:

The communication to the client of the therapist's empathic understanding and unconditional positive regard is to a minimal degree achieved (p 96).

In a slightly different theoretical statement, Rogers (1959) wrote:

That the client perceives, at least to a minimal degree... the unconditional positive regard of the therapist for him, and the empathic understanding of the therapist (p 213).

On the basis of either statement, obviously, if the therapist is to communicate acceptant empathic understanding (not only experience these attitudes) then the therapist must behave in a manner that allows the client an opportunity to perceive these attitudes. It seems reasonable to assume that the therapist must at limes make explicit empathic responses, along with nonverbal and expressive behaviors, that may communicate acceptance and empathy. The question logically following from this assumption is: When, or under what particular circumstances, or according to what criteria, should the therapist deliberately speak his or her understanding?

It may be helpful to clarify certain features of client-centered theory before articulating the specific criteria which answer the question of when, or under what circumstances, the therapist should deliberately speak his or her empathic understanding. To elucidate by contrast, I will first discuss a theoretical interpretation of the purpose of responses which is inconsistent with the basic theory.

Some client-centered theorists have developed the idea that explicit responses should evoke or stimulate the client's experiencing process (e.g., Rice, 1974). The unproved assumption behind this idea is that the fundamental cause of the change process is a particular experiencing process in the client (Leijssen, 1996). The problem with this idea is that it may produce therapist attitudes which undermine the essential therapeutic attitudes and essential character of the client-centered therapeutic relationship.

Specifically, the idea that therapists' responses must affect clients' experiencing process in a particular manner in order to promote therapeutic change requires the therapist to assume responsibility, at least at times, for the client having the "correct", or the truly therapeutic, experiencing process. This is likely to imply one of two things in respect to the therapist's behavior. One possibility is that the therapist must constantly be attempting to enhance, intensify or amplify the client's experiencing process. This is an unlikely meaning, given the general clinical observation that there are times when individuals appear to need to soften, or distance themselves from, the

21 Barbara T. Brodley

intensity of their experience in order to maintain their integration. The alternative behavioral im- plication that the therapist should take responsibility for the client's experiencing process is that the therapist should be producing different effects (e.g., sometimes amplifying, sometimes softening the client's experience), for the client's benefit. Different experiences in the client are deemed the appropriate ones at different times or under different circumstances. This form of the inference, if put into practice, would require the therapist to engage in a diagnostic process and to engage in process directiveness (Greenberg, Rice & Elliot, 1993) in relation to the client. In either case, the therapist has taken on the task and responsibility of doing something to the client to pro duce an effect on the client. In both cases, the therapist is presuming to know what the client needs and, in the second case, presuming to know when he or she needs it. Both require the therapist to make ongoing decisions about what is to be done to affect the client repeatedly through the ther-apy session. I

When a therapist moves into the realm of deciding what is best for the client in the context of I the specific therapy relationship, or moves into the realm of decisions concerning what is best for the client at particular points in the therapy interaction, he or she is no longer functioning within the basic values of the client-centered position. This view of clientcenteredtherapy has been eloquently argued on the basis of research, clinical experience and study of Rogers' writings and therapy behavior by Bozarth (1992). Bozarth states:

The essence of client-centered/person-centered therapy is the therapist's dedication to going with the client's direction, at the client's pace, and in the client's unique way of being, (p 13).

Certain values are thought to be, and seem to many of us who practice it to be, essential to the therapy's effectiveness. They are: (1) That the client is an autonomous person with growth and healing potentials within him or her self which the person is in the best position to utilize. (2) That the therapist is committed to respecting and protecting that self-direction and autonomy. (3) That the responsibilities of the client-centered therapist rest hi the therapist maintaining and living out the fundamental values and attitudes that are believed to be the basis for constructive personality change and healing. Any form of paternalism² is inconsistent with client-centered therapy and undermines the distinctive client-centered relationship.

The actual general purpose of explicit responses in client-centered therapy is for the therapist to be a participant in an interaction between persons. Explicit responses, as well as the therapist's manner and tone - his or her presence, permit the client to perceive and understand the therapist. Within the interaction the therapist is trying to accurately and acceptantly empathically understand the client and the client has an opportunity to perceive the therapist's attitudes and the therapist's concrete accuracy of understandings. Explicit responses, along with a great variety of nonverbal behaviors that are also shaped by the therapist's therapeutic attitudes, are a major vehicle of communication to the client of the therapist's inner empathy and acceptance.

Setting the stage for presentation of the criteria for empathic responses in client-centered therapy also requires addressing the confusion that exists concerning the role of technique in client-centered therapy (see Bozarth & Brodley, 1986; Brodley & Brody, 1996). Some teachers and practitioners have misunderstood Rogers' theory of therapy and mistakenly identify client-centered therapy with the use of the technique of "making reflections" (Rogers, 1986) or the technique of "active listening" (Gordon, 1970). In both of these techniques, the therapist makes a kind of restatement of the client's expression. Techniques of restatement are often employed subsequent to each unit of completed communication (roughly each spoken paragraph, or coherent idea or feeling) by the client. These techniques may, in fact, be helpful to clients and may produce a therapeutic change process, but they are not appreciative of Rogers' conception of therapeutic

Empathic Responses in Client-Centered Therapy

empathic understanding. Rogers' theory emphatically emphasizes the therapist's attitudes and feelings, not techniques, in the therapy relationship (Rogers, 1957).

Rogers' theory also asserts that the client must to some extent perceive and experience (he therapist's attitudes. Such reception requires the therapist to have transmitted attitudinal information to the client. Spoken communication is highly likely to be at least part of the vehicle of transmission. It is, therefore, reasonable to refer to a means to an end technique element in doing client-centered therapy or in teaching it. It may, for example, be developmentally useful to students of therapy to practice reflecting the utterances of a practice client, or practice "active listening" as a technique 10 help students become comfortable with responsiveness and interaction in the therapeutic relation, or to become confident in their ability to represent the communications of another person from that person's point of view. But practice responding for these and other didactic purposes should not be confused by the student or teacher with client-centered therapeutic responding in which the therapist's attitudes determine his or her behavior (Brodley, 1995; 1997).

In Rogers’ theory of therapy the attitudes and feelings of the therapist which become successfully communicated to the client are among the causes of client therapeutic change. Successful communication may have been achieved, however, through some different means than by making empathic understanding responses (Bozarth, 1984).

There is no dogma of technique in Rogers' theory. There is, actually, no technique in the real therapeutic process, if technique means deliberately employing means towards desired ends (Brodley, J995; Brodley & Brody, 1996). It does not matter, from the perspective of efficacy, how the therapist gets the therapeutic attitudes across to the client. As long as the particular client experiences acceptant empathic understanding (without experiencing contradictory experiences, or at least a minimum of other experiences which contradict those attitudes) from a therapist who comes across as authentic. Empathic understanding responses are only given emphasis in explaining the therapy because in most situations, with most clients, they area form of oven responsiveness that can express the therapeutic attitudes and that have a likelihood of being perceived as acceptant empathic understandings.

Practices of speaking reflections, speaking empathic understanding responses, doing active listening, or doing any practices that are done as technique produce a different quality of relationship and interaction process, and one that is less therapeutic, than the relationship Rogers had in mind when expressing his theory.

Nevertheless, if a therapist does not make specific decisions about what is best for a client while interacting and responding, and does not engage in a routine or ritual application of technique, the therapist still needs a criterion, or criteria, for explicit expression of empathic experience of the client. The basis for explicit or overt expression should be (I) consistent with the growth premise of the theory, (2) consistent with the client-centered conception of causality as resting in a combination of the attitudes of the therapist and the basic nature of the person, and (3) consistent with the value placed on promoting and protecting the client's autonomy, self-regulation and self-determination. In addition, the basis for overt responses should be (4) consistent with what Rogers' considered the primary therapeutic attitude (Baldwin, 1986) -the therapist's congruence. Congruence refers, specifically, to the therapist's wholeness and integration. When he or she is congruent, the therapist's responses are authentic, and thus will probably feel authentic to the client.

Barbara T. Brodley

The Empathic Interaction

Explicit empathic responses occur in the context of an empathic understanding response process (Temaner, 1977) within the client-centered relationship. The typical events of empathic interaction are as follows:

(1): The client talks to the therapist and expresses or describes some of his or her feelings, concerns, thoughts or life events. The client articulates something from personal experience and from his or her own viewpoint that he wishes to communicate at that time to the therapist (and may wish, also to say out loud lo hear for himself).
(2): While the client is expressing his or her experience the therapist is giving a full and undistracted attention to the client. The therapist is attempting to receive, to absorb and grasp the meanings and feelings the client is saying or trying to say from his or her own point of view, taking it in until the therapist has it in his own experiencing process such that he feels he understands to some' extent (or does not have that feeling of understanding and recognizes the fact).
(3): Next, the therapist may or may not make an explicit response that communicates his or her inner understanding (or acknowledges lack of understanding) to the client. If the therapist does not make an explicit verbal-oral response, he may nod, make a vocal gesture such as "Uhm-hm", or simply remain attentive and silent in a way that implies understanding to the client.
(4): Finally, in this "empathic cycle" (Barrett-Lennard, 1981), in response to the presence, the attention, or the explicit responses of the therapist, the client may have the feeling of being understood and accepted. These experiences tend to stimulate the client to farther self-reflection and expression.

Over the years I have practiced, trying to develop my capability as a therapist from a client-centered theoretical perspective, I gradually realized I was spontaneously using criteria for making empathic responses which met theoretical conditions. These criteria are based on the wants or feelings of the therapist (given the general therapeutic intention and commitment to the therapeutic attitudes), or based on the request for response by the client. I distinguish five different criteria for making empathic responses on these particular bases. Each of the five are compatible with the nondirective attitude intrinsic to the theory. I shall describe these criteria in terms of circumstances mat may occur in (he first and second steps of the empathic interaction cycle (when the client is self expressing and the therapist is attending and absorbing). Any one of these criteria is a sufficient reason for making an explicit response.

The Criteria For Making Empathic Responses ^:

1. When the therapist feels some understanding but also experiences some uncertainty
cause of an ambiguity or imprecision or confusion perceived to be located in the client]
communication.

In this case the client'sstatements have been experienced as somewhat unclear by thetherapist, butclear enough or coherent enough for the therapist to attempt an explicit response. (If the client's statements have been experienced as so unclear that the therapist does not feel any understanding, the therapist would usually ask the client for a restatement or new expression of what the client was trying to communicate.) If the client has n« been fully understood because of coming across as unclear to the therapist, the client may or may not realize this when the therapist makes the response to check inner understanding. The therapist's aim is not to point out the client's imprecision. The empathic response, rather, is aimed to elicit the client's validation, correction or elaboration concerning what he or she is trying to communicate.

Empathic Responses in Client-Centered Therapy

2. When the therapist feels uncertain about his or her understanding of the client's communication.

The therapist perceives the feeling of uncertainty to be located in the therapist's reception or absorption of the client's communication. The uncertainty about understanding coexists with the feeling that the client's communication was clear and coherent enough to be understood. The therapist feels unsure of his or her own grasp of the client's meanings or feelings.

3. When the therapist feels an impulse or desire to express and communicate his or her self while immersed in the attempt to empathically understand

This impulse or desire to express oneself which is resolved through expression of understandings probably originates in the interpersonal and interactional nature of the psychotherapeutic relation. Inherent in an interpersonal relation is an expectation of an exchange -a back and forth characteristic of the interaction. The deeply empathically engaged therapist, however, seldom will experience any specific content from his or her own frame of reference thai could serve as a vehicle for self expression. Thus when the interaction involves almost exclusive focus and attention on the client member of the dyad, the therapist may feel the desire to be responsive and expressive through the vehicle of tentative empathic understandings.

4. When the therapist feels the need to establish the client's communication in experience or memory.

The therapist may feel a need to make an explicit empathic response, possibly even a relatively literal one, in order to help him or herself get the client's meanings incorporated into his own experience and memory. This form of empathic response sometimes may be prefaced with a brief explanation such as "I just need to be sure I have that clear in my own mind. What you were just saying is...."

5. When the client asks the therapist if the therapist has been able to follow or understand, or asks the therapist whether the client has been clear in communication.

In some instances the client may not ask explicitly, but conveys by a behavioral cue (e.g., the client looks searchingly at the therapist along with an incomplete expression of his or her idea), or an indirect expression (e.g., says "I don't know if I'm making sense") indicating he or she is wondering if the therapist understands. In these somewhat ambiguous instances the therapist may directly make an empathic response (or may first ask the client if he or she is concerned right then about being understood).

The above criteria for making explicit empathic responses, except for the fifth which is directly responsive to the client's wishes, have to do with the feelings of the therapist. None of the five are based on any therapist speculation, judgment or assessment of the client's needs for a response. They all express the therapist's intention to experience accurate, acceptant, empathic understanding and the therapist's respect for the client as the determinant of what is or is not accurate. The criteria are nondirective and nonmanipulalive in relation to the client. The therapist's specific and concrete intention in making empathic responses is simply to participate in empathic understanding of the client as a process of absorbing tentative understandings that become validated or corrected by the client.

The criteria are meant to be implicit guides to promote the achievement of the therapeutic attitudes in relationship with the client. I do not mean that the therapist in the midst of therapy should mentally run down the list of criteria, then make sure one of them is met, identify it, and then and only then make an explicit response to the client.

Barbara T. Bradley

A main purpose in clarifying these criteria is to emphasize that the client-centered therapist re lates to his client in a spontaneous and conversational manner. The therapist has a specific pur- pose, to be an effective therapist, but the manner of achieving effective therapy emerges from the sincerity of therapeutic attitudes, not through rational matching of means to ends. The client- centered manner does not involve making or acting upon speculations or inferences concerning the specific client. Nor does it involve speculations or inferences concerning the client's specific needs, nor judgments about how to foster the client's well-being in specific instances. Obviously, the entire theory involves inferential general judgments about what is therapeutic and what is not. Having a general position - a theory - is quite different from making moment to moment deci- sions concerning clients.

Adopting the criteria I've described for making responses, before the concrete occasion of doing therapy with clients, will likely influence the therapist through an implicit subjective process when he or she is doing therapy. Knowing the criteria should not lead to a conscious decision process added to the therapist's task while doing therapy. Often, when listening to recordings of empathic interactions, the therapist can identify which one of the criteria was operative when making specific responses. But even when so listening, it is not always possible to recognize or remember the operative criterion - and that is of no matter. The important thing is that the therapist has been genuinely trying to understand, not trying to exercise some conceived power to produce therapeutic effects on or in the client.

The criteria described are those which undeliberately influence the specific and concrete intention of the therapist in the empathic interaction. It should be understood - very emphatically- the client-centered therapist is, in principle and in the heart, not intending to produce effects on or in the client when doing therapy. The therapist is simply, but profoundly, being him or herself in a person to person interaction. In this way the therapist is giving him or herself to empathic reception and to following of the client and wanting, from time to time, to communicate about his or her empathic experience of the client to the client⁵.

The mechanisms of change in client-centered therapy are thought generally to be in the transmission of the therapeutic attitudes of the therapist from the therapist to the client. Consequently, the client becomes more integrated, more self-accepting and more empathically understanding ^vtowards him or herself (Rogers, 1984). I believe this view points to the truth about therapeutic change and that, additionally, more specific processes can be described for individual clients within this general process framework. I do not believe there is only one therapeutic change pro- cess for all clients in the context of client-centered therapy. Rather, that the integrity of the rela- tionship - one containing, consistently and without contradiction, the living out of the therapeutic 4 attitudes by the therapist - allows whatever specific change processes are at work within particular clients. It is obvious to me, based on my work with many people, that therapeutic effects are produced when the therapist is free of specific intentions to produce effects on or in the client, Many different therapeutic processes and effects⁶do occur in the client-centered therapist's cli- ents as the therapist works purely from the theory and empathically with clients. These effects seem to contribute in sometimes unexpected ways to accomplishing the general purpose and goal in the situation - the healing and growth of the client.

Indeed, there are many immediate and prevailing effects and impacts on clients as the consequence of the empathic relationship and interaction. But - while functioning in the spirit of the client-centered philosophy and embodying its values - the therapist is not intending to produce these or other beneficial effects. The therapist's specific and concrete intention is to be as present as possible in the relationship and to acceptantly and empathically experience and understand the client.

Empathic Responses in Client-Centered Therapy

REFERENCES

Baldwin, M.(1987). Interview with Carl Rogers on the use of the self in therapy. In M. Baldwin and V. Satir (Eds.), The

Use of the Self in Therapy (45 - 54), New York: The Haworth Press, 45-54.
Barrett-Lennard. G.T. (1981). The empathy cycle: Refinement of a nuclear concept. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 28, 91-100.

Bozarth, J.D. (1984). Beyond reflection: Emergent modes of empathy. In R.F. Levant and J.M. Shlien (Eds.) Client-
centered therapy and the person- centered approach: New directions in theory, research, and practice (59-75), New
York:. Praeger.

Bozarth, J.D. (1985). Quantum theory and the person-centered approach. Journal of Counseling and Development, (M.

179-182.
Bozaflh, J.D. (1992). Coterminous intermingling of doing and being in person- centered therapy. Person-Centered
Journal 1 (1), 12-20.

Bozarth J.D. & Brodley, B.T. (1986). Client-centered Psychotherapy: A statement. Person-Centered Review, 1 (3) 262

271.
Brodley, B.T. (1995). Client-centered therapy: Not a means to an end. Unpublished manuscript.
Brodley, B. T. (1997). Client-centered therapy: An expressive therapy. Paper presented at the Fourth international

Conference on Client-Centered and Experiential Psychotherapy (ICCCEP) in Lisbon, Portugal, (July).

Brodley, B. T. & Brody, A. (1996). Can one use techniques and still be client-centered? In Client-centered and
Experiential Psychotherapy (369-374), Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
Gordon. T. (1970). A theory of healthy relationships and a program of parent effectiveness training. In J.T. Hart and T.M.

Tomlinson (Eds.) New directions in Client-Centered Therapy (47- 426), Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
Greenberg, L.S., Rice. L.N. & Elliot, R. (1993). Facilitating Emotional Change. New York: Guilford.
Leijssen, M. (1996). Focusing processes. In L.S. Greenberg, G. Lietaer, & J. Watson (Eds.), Experiential

Psychotherapy; Differential Intervention. New York: Guilford.
Raskin, N. (1947). The nondirective attitude. Unpublished manuscript.
Raskin. N. (1988). Responses to person-centered vs client-centered? Renaissance, 5 (3 &4), 2-3.
Rice, L. N (1974). The evocative function of the therapist. In D.A. Wexlerand L.N. Rice (Eds.) Innovations in Client-

Centered Therapy (289-311), New York: Wiley.
Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-Centered Therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Rogers, C. R. (1957). The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. Journal of

Consulting Psychology, 21, 184-256.

Rogeis, C.R. (1984). Dialogue with Carl Rogers. Tape of a dialogue between Carl Rogers and participants in the Second
International Forum on the Person -Centered Approach. Norwich, England, (July).
Rogers, C.R. (1986). Reflection of feelings. Person-Centered Review, 1, 375-377.
Temaner, Barbara (1977). The empathic understanding response process. Chicago Counseling Center Discussion Paper.
Tcmaner. Barbara (1982). Criteria for making empathic responses. Prepared for the First International Forum on the

Person-Centered Approach, Oaxtepec, Mexico, (June-July).

NOTES

1 A major category of empathic responses are often termed "empathic understanding responses" (EURs). EURs refer to a broad category of responses all of which are an attempt to accurately articulate the experience the client has expressed or has been striving to express. EURs range from very literal restatements or summaries of what the client has expressed, to more fragmental responses, to forms of response which involve more inference or guessing about what the client has been expressing. But in all instances of EURs, they represent the therapist's attempt to articulate the client's point of view and are an attempt at an empathic following of the client. They are not based on an attempt to interpret the client or get ahead of the client's awareness of his or her experiences.

² Paternalism is generally defined as doing something for, or to (or with-holding from), another person, with the intention of doing the person some good, without the person's consent.

Barbara T. Bradley

³In the client-centered therapeutic situation, wherein the therapist experiences and embodies the therapeutic attitudinal conditions and when the "empathic cycle" occurs and reoccurs, a distinctive therapeutic process is taking place which I have termed "the empathic understanding response process" (Temaner, 1977).

⁴ This impulse or felt desire is not anxiety and should be consciously discriminated from anxiety feelings. A feeling of anxiety to make a response to the client may be stimulated in therapists (especially new therapists) when they or the client have been silent for awhile. The feeling of anxiety-to-respond is best taken as a cue to regain congruence, to relax, give oneself a chance to reflect on the impulse and dispell the anxiety.

The assumptions behind this extreme non-directive, non-manipulative position are that (1) the autonomy and self-regulation of the client need protection in a therapeutic relationship even when the therapeutic conditions which are believed to cause constructive change are being provided. (2) the growth potential of the person is assumed to be the effective force that moves the individual towards growth and health. (3) The therapist provides an optimal psychological environment condusive to the client's potential for constructive change and health but the therapist also needs to be highly sensitive to the potency of his personality, status and role in the relationship. Note that all these are assumptions prior to the specific therapeutic relation, and apply in relation to all clients. I

⁶ I have observed a number of different effects of empathic interaction which seem to be aspectsof change processes in particular clients. Some examples: The client becomes reassured that he is understandable. The client feels himself becoming less confused or more coherent to himself. The client feels more understanding of his motivations, values and feelings. The client feels cared about and valued, less alone, less alienated, less different from other people, or less strange. The client feels more understanding of others, their motivations, and feelings. The client feels he or she is being more realistic and open to the way things are. The client feels more aware of subtle processes of feeling and meanings within himself. Clients have reported that they feel these and many other effects and processes to have been stimulated by interaction with an acceptant and empathic therapist.

LIFE ENRICHMENT OF A PROFOUNDLY RETARDED WOMAN: AN APPLICATION OF PRE-THERAPY

Korey McWilliams & Garry Prouty
Chicago Counseling Center

INTRODUCTION

Client-centered therapy has traditionally neglected therapeutic work with mentally retarded clients. Rogers (1942) believed such clients lacked the autonomy and introspective skills necessary for psychotherapy. Some scholars believed such a position by Rogers resulted in a profound inhibiting effect on the development of therapy and research for this population (Ruederich and Menolascino, 1984). Consequently, only a handful of European publications have appeared: Badelt of Germany (1990), Peters of The Netherlands (1981, 1986a, 1986b, 1992, 1996), and Portner of Switzerland (1990, 1996a, 1996b).

PRE-THERAPY

As an evolution of Client-centered therapy (Prouty, 1994), Pre-Therapy proposes a theory of psychological contact specifically designed for application to retarded clients, as well as, other low functioning populations (Prouty, 1976, 1990, 1997, Prouty &CronwaIl, 1990, Prouty & Kubiak, 1988, Van Werde, 1990). Rogers (1957) described psychological contact as the first condition for forming a therapeutic relationship. Unfortunately, Rogers did not present a concept of psychological contact, nor did he describe the means to develop it when impaired or absent in clients. As with higher functioning clients, he tended to assume its presence.

Pre-Therapy delineates the concept of psychological contact in both theoretical and applied detail. The method or technique of establishing psychological contact is described as Contact Reflection(s). Theoretically, the underlying psychological processes are labeled as Contact Functions and the measurable behavioral outcomes are referred to as Contact Behaviors.

Contact Reflections

Contact Reflections are specifically designed to make psychological contact with the regressed-retarded type of client. They are extraordinarily concrete and literal so as to empathically match the client's "concrete attitude" (Gurswitch, 1966). Contact Reflections are different from classical Rogerian reflections. Because of the client's lack of communicative capacity, often the therapist cannot know the client's internal frame of reference. Consequently, the reflections are directed at the client's over-expressive behavior. These Contact Reflections take five forms: situational, facial, word for word, body, and reiterative.

Situational Reflections (SR) are oriented towards a client's situation, environment, or milieu. Their theoretical intent is to assist concrete reality contact. An example is "Jane is playing with the toy."

Korey McWilliams & Garry Prouty

Facial Reflections (FR) are directed towards the client's pre-expressive affect.

Their theoretical purpose is to develop affective contact. This type of response is

exemplified as "You look angry."

Word for Word Reflections (WWR) are focused on client's speech, often times incoherent. The client may express (an incoherence), (incoherence), sky, street. The therapist may reflect "sky," "street." This is designed to assist communicative contact.

Body Reflections (BR) are pointed toward the client's body posturing. An example is "Your arms are straight in front of you." The purpose is to assist awareness functions, such as bodily, spatial and perceptual experiencing.

A Reiterative Reflection (RR) is a principle that states, if any of the preceding therapist responses elicit a client response - repeat it. This allows the reinforcement of previous contactful experience.

These reflections, through following the clients' verbal and non-verbal efforts, provide the cli- ent with a network of psychological contact at the client's level of expression and communica- tion. Theoretically, these contact reflections will function to increase the client's contact withfti World, Self, and Others (Merleau-Ponty, 1962).

Contact Functions

The Contact Functions refer to the client's experiencing of World, Self and Other. They are a direct result of Contact Reflections. Perls' (1969) suggestion of "contact as an ego function” is vided into three psychological functions; Reality, Affective, and Communicative Contact. Thest! are described as awareness functions. Reality contact is the awareness of people, places, things, and events. Affective contact is the awareness of moods, feelings, and emotions. Communicative contact is the symbolization of reality and affective contact. Put in another way, Pre-Therapy restores contact with the World, Self and Other.

The following is a clinical example (Prouty, 1994, op. cit.) that describes an encounter between a student therapist and a schizophrenic, functionally retarded, woman in a custodial institution. The abbreviations label the type of Contact Reflection(s) utilized in the therapist's (T) response to the client (C).

C		Come.
T	WWR	Come with me.
		[The patient led me to the corner of the day-room. We stood there lently for what seemed to be a very long time. Since I couldn't communicate with her verbally, I watched her body movements and closely fleeted these.]
C		[The patient put her hand on the wall.] Cold.
T	WWR-BR	[I put my hand on the wall and repeated the word.] Cold.
		[She had been holding my hand all along, but when I reflected her, she would tighten her grip. She then began to mumble word fragments so I was careful to reflect only the words I could understand. What she was saying began to make sense.]
C		I don't know what this is anymore.
		[Touching the wall-REALITY CONTACT]. The walls and chairs don't mean anything anymore.
		30

Life Enrichment of a Profoundly Retarded Woman

T	WWR-BR	[Touching the wall.] You don't know what this is anymore. The chairs and walls don't mean anything to you anymore.
C		[The patient began to cry- AFFECTIVE CONTACT. After awhile she began to talk again. This time she spoke clearly – COMMUNICATIVE CONTACT]. I don't like it here. I'm so tired, so tired.
T	WWR	[As I gently touched her arm, this time it was I who tightened my grip
		on her hand when I spoke]. You're tired, so tired.
C		[The patient smiled and took me to sit in a chair directly in front of her and she began to braid my hair].

This vignette illustrates the facilitation of the contact functions through the use of Contact Reflections. Reality, Affective, and Communicative Contact are restored and the client moves toward the therapeutic relationship.

Contact Behaviors

Contact Behaviors refer to the observable results of Pre-Therapy. Contact behaviors emerge through the facilitation of the contact functions. Reality, Affective and Communicative Contact form the three dimensions of measurement. The operationalization of reality contact is defined as the verbalization of people, places, things, and events. The operationalization of affective contact is defined as the bodily/facial or verbal expression of affect. Communicative Contact is described as the linguistic symbolization of reality and affective contact. Early pilot studies (Hinterkopf, Prouty and Brunswick, 1979) found significant differences in reality and communicative contact as a function of treatment. Evidence of construct validity was developed by Prouty (1994, op. cit.). Reliability measures have been obtained by DeVre (1992) and Dinacci (1995).

CASE STUDY

The present study reviews the history of a forty-one year old, profoundly retarded woman whose step-mother implemented contact reflections in their home.

Participants

The main participants were a family of three: Darlene - the profoundly retarded woman, her father, and Darlene's step-mother [new mom]. All information in this paper was obtained through interviews with the step-mother. At the time of the interviewer's contact, the father had passed away and due to severe health problems, the step-mother was unable to continue to provide the attention necessary to care for Darlene; consequently, she now lives in a residential home for handicapped persons in her parent's neighborhood.

Eleven years earlier, all three were living together and Darlene had the love of her father and the growing love of her new step-mother. However, at that time, as observed by the step-mother, caring and love were necessary, but were insufficient. Although physically and emotionally close to her parents, Darlene remained alone, isolated in her own world, that was in many ways, a world unknowable.

Docile and agreeable, Darlene rarely smiled, offered negligible eye contact, showed little reaction to others and rarely initiated interactions. Her verbal language skills were non-existent and she was unable to communicate biological needs for thirst, hunger, or using the bathroom. Furthermore, she was semi-ambulatory and prone to petite and grand mal seizures, requiring continuous and constant monitoring.

Darlene lived in a psychological shell, her world within ours, yet little contact existed between the two worlds. Sensing this existential isolation, her step-mother, having learned Pre-Therapy's approach to communicating with non-communicative mentally retarded persons, began to initi

Korey McWllioms & Garry Prouty

ate contact reflections. By doing this, her step-mother opened the door to a new way of life, not only for herself, but also for Darlene and her father.

Implementing Contact Reflections

The step-mother began implementing contact reflections in the morning and evenings when Darlene was home from her sheltered workshop. These included the situational, bodily, facial, word for word, and reiterative reflections described above.

With all clients, and in the case of Darlene, the level of impairment will dictate which I reflection a therapist will use. For example, the use of situational reflections requires some vo- cabulary on the part of the client. Because Darlene's language comprehension was minimal, the step-mother's use of situational reflections was, therefore, limited.

Bodily reflections are either behavioral, verbal, or simultaneously both. If Darlene raised a hand in the air, her step-mother raised her hand and/or said, "you're holding your hand in the air.” Although severely language impaired, these verbal reflections were utilized to express "receiving" communication from Darlene. Other examples the step-mother used were crossing her fin- gers, tapping her thigh and tilting her head slightly, all attempts to bodily reflect Darlene's behavior.

Facial reflections respond to an individual's facial expressions of affect, either verbally or behaviorally. Unfortunately, because of isolation, medication, or institutionalization, some mentally retarded clients may be emotionally flat and their facial expressions may offer only a glimmer of feeling. Facial reflections respond to those edges as a way of bringing the client in contact with their underlying affect. Though clearly not indicated by Pre-Therapy, her step-mother only reflected "positive" affect such as "looking happy" and "smiling." If Darla smiled, her step-mother would say "Darlene is smiling" and smile back at her. Expressing intense negative behavior was not empathically reinforced because of the home living situation. Disruptive, high-pitched, screams would be one of the negative behaviors not to be encouraged.

Word for word reflections are the literal repetition of words and meaning fragments communicated by the client. This reinforces the client's sense of being a communicator who may be able establish contact. Again, because Darlene was non-verbal, her step-mother did not reflect words although she actively reflected a variety of humming and throat sounds.

The reiterative reflection is better thought of as not a type of reflection, but as a guiding pi pie of recapturing that which previously established contact. For example, Darlene spontaneously made a humming sound to which her step-mother reflected. Because this established contact, her step-mother later reiterated this sound to attempt re-contact. Likewise, whenever the stepmother discovered anything else that established contact, she would remember it and utilize it again later.

Because Darlene and her step-mother's contact was not limited to fifty minute sessions, once per week, the frequency of reflections differed from the usual therapeutic encounter. Her step- mother expressed this as "It was a daily routine. Whenever the situation presented itself, or I could make it possible...[eventually] it became automatic. I even taught her father." "I will never" forget the moment when Darlene realized she was understood and no longer isolated. She could communicate. For the thirty years prior to this her father could only love her and meet her needs. Now they could relate. The awe in Darlene's face was profound.”

RESULTS

Pre-Therapy theorizes that with exposure to contact reflections, a client psychological contact will increase. This contact can be defined as a triumvirate classification of contact with World, Self, and Other. According to the step-mother's reports, the effects of utilizing contact reflections

Life Enrichment of a Profoundly Retarded Woman

demonstrated clinically significant changes in Darlene's emotional growth and behavior. Specifically, Darlene's contact with the World, Self and Other was born.

Her step-mother reported that prior to Darlene's exposure to contact reflections, she would sit expressionless and inattentive to the "world," When the family would go for car rides, Darlene preferred to gaze downward and play with her toys, rarely glancing outside and never showing interest in her surroundings. Subsequent to the step-mother's efforts to make contact, Darlene began to pay more attention and developed an interest in her environment. Now, on car rides she would sit up, eyes focused and looking around, tracking the passing objects, as well as, noticing passersby. It seemed as if a new curiosity was born within, reaching out to the world for stimulation. Ultimately, Darlene's contact with her environment culminated in her first trip to the movie theater where she sat quietly and attentively.

Darlene's contact with "Self” also appeared significant. For example, prior to the stepmother's efforts, Darlene would pass by their bathroom mirror uninterested, barely stopping to look in its direction. Gradually, as the step-mother continued her use of contact reflections, Darlene took notice of her own image and eventually would look in the mirror with enjoyment, smiling and laughing. Not only did Darlene smile and laugh at just the mirror, but in many other situations she began fully expressing her joy and happiness this way.

Even more significant was Darlene's increased contact with the "other." In this case, the "other" was "others." That is, Darlene's upswing in communicative contact with her father and step-mother was quite dramatic. The formerly regressed world, where Darlene often withdrew, was now broken open and outward. Concretely, and most significantly, this included her father enjoying his daughter, something he had rarely experienced. Darlene no longer sat by and watched her father and step-mother interact, helpless to be a part. Instead she would initiate eye contact and other gestures, eliciting verbal and physical responses from both parents. Furthermore, over time Darlene eventually learned to signal her hunger needs by holding her arm in the air, crossing her fingers and simultaneously humming.

Other positive outcomes of her step-mother's contactful relating were Darlene's increased initiative. Beyond just the ability to perform, there was a fresh, new willingness on Darlene's part to attempt new tasks, such as taking off her coat upon demand or learning to climb the steps and board her school bus without assistance.

Not only did it seem rewarding for Darlene to experience the intrinsic satisfaction of autonomy and accomplishment, but the level of psychological stress on the parents was somewhat diminished; in that parental isolation was also reduced. This, in turn, enabled them to be more available for interactive contact with Darlene.

It should be noted that as Darlene was being prepared for placement in the group home. An independent psychologist tested Darlene's I.Q. He noted the shift in Darlene's cognitive performance from that of a recorded 8 month mental age to that of a three year old in limited command comprehension.

SUMMARY

Pre-Therapy evolved from Rogers' suggestion of psychological contact as the first condition of a therapeutic relationship. Psychological Contact can be understood as consisting of Contact Reflections, Functions, and Behaviors. Contact Reflections refer to the techniques of making contact. Contact Functions are awareness functions resulting from the Contact Reflections. Contact Behaviors are the emergent, measurable behaviors resulting from increased psychological contact.

Korey Me Williams & Garry Prouty

This paper expands the use of Pre-Therapy to include familial participation in the psychological development of a profoundly retarded woman. Non-verbal contact reflections were utilized by her parents as a "life enrichment" facilitation. Improved contact with the World, Self and Other resulted. Darlene demonstrated increased contact with the world around her through increased attentiveness to reality. The client also demonstrated increased contact with self through enjoyment of her mirror images. She further demonstrated contact with others by becoming more communicative through the use of primitive expressions and gestures. A further positive development was the effect on the parents as a result of the increased communication. They could have emotional satisfaction from the increased human contact with their daughter. In these ways, family "therapy" occurred.

This case study on a single "home bound," profoundly retarded, non-verbal woman generally confirms more quantitative pilot studies with more verbal, but retarded, clients. Further value of the study is the presentation of improved ordinary living within the family unit.

Future applications of Pre-Therapy should extend the approach to teaching parent/caretakers and significant others to utilize contact reflections as a part of normal interaction. Just as Carl Rogers suggested that the principles of client-centered therapy extend to all interpersonal relationships, so it seems that in relationships with retarded persons, Pre-Therapy may be thought of not merely as a technique, but as a "Way of Being."

REFERENCES

Badelt, I. (1990). Client Centered psychotherapy with mentally handicapped adults. In G. Lietaer, J. Rombauts & R. Van Balen (Eds.), Client-Centered and Experiential Psychotherapy in the Nineties, (pp. 671-681). Leuven, Belgium Leuven University Press.

Danacci, A. (1995). Experimental Research of the Psychological Treatment of Schizophrenic Clients with Garry Prouty's Pre-Therapy and Innovative Developments. Bologna, Italy. I

DeVre, R. (1992) Prouty's pre-therapie. Master's Thesis, Ghent Belgium. Department of Psychology, University ofGhent.

Gurswitch, A. (1966). Gelb Goldstein's concept of concrete and categorical attitude and the phenomenology of ideation. In J. Wild (Ed.), Studies in Phenomenology and Psychology, (pp.359-384). Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.

Hinterkopf, E., Prouty, G. and Brunswick L. (1979). A Pilot Study of Pre-Therapy Method Applied to Chronic Schizophrenic Patients. Psychosocial Rehabilitation Journal, 3(Fall) (pp. 11-19). Merleau-Ponty, M. (1962). The phenomenal field. In T. Honderich (Ed.), The Phenomenology of Perception. New York: Routledge and Kegan, Paul (p.60). Perls, F. (1969). The ego as a function of the organism. Ego, Hunger and Agression. New York: Vintage Books, (p. 139). Peters, H. (1981). Luisterend Helpen: Paging Tot een Beter Omgaan Met de Zwakzinnige Medemes. Lochem/Gent, The Netherlands: De Tijdstroom. Peters, H. (1986a). Client-Centered Benaderingswijzen in deZwakzinningenzorg. In R. Van Balen, M. Leijssen, & G. Leitaer (Eds.), Droom en Werkelijkheid. Belgium: Acco Press (pp.205-220). Peters, H. (1986b). Prouty's pre-therapie methode en de behandeling van hallucinaties een verslag (Prouty's Therapy methods and the treatment of hallucinations). The Netherlands: RUIT (Maart). Peters, H. (1992). Psychotherapie Bij Geesteljik Gehandicapten. Amsterdam: Swetz and Zeitlinger. Peters, H. (1996). Prouty's Pre-Therapeutische Methodes Bij Geestelijk Gehandicapten. Tijdschrift VoorOrthopedagogied, Kinderpsychiatrie En Klinische Kiderpsycholgie, The Netherlands, Nr. 1 (Maart) (pp.23-35).

Portner, M. (1990). Client-centered therapy with mentally retarded persons: Catherine and Ruth. In G. Lietaer, J.Rombauts and R. Van Balen (Eds.), Client Centered and Experiential Therapy in the Nineties. Belgium: LEUVEN University Press, (pp. 559-69).

Portner, M. (1996a). Working with the mentally handicapped in a person-centered way -is it possible, is it appropriateand what does it mean in practice? Client Centered and Experiential Psychotherapy: A paradigm in Motion. Vienna: Peter Lang. (pp. 513-528).

Portner, M. (1996b). Ernstnehemen Zutrauen-Verstehen: Personzentrierte Haltung im Umgang mit geistigbehinderten und pflegebedurftigen. Menschen. Germany: Klett-Cotta.

Life Enrichment of a Profoundly Retarded Woman

Prouty, G. (1976). Pre-Therapy, a method of treating pre-expressive psychotic and retarded patients. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice. l3(Fall), (pp. 290-294).

Prouty, G. (1990). Pre-Therapy: A theoretical evolution in the person-centered/experiential psychotherapy of schizophrenia and retardation. In G. Lietaer, J. Rombauts and R. Van Balen (Eds.), Client-Centered and Experiential-Psychotherapy in the Nineties. Leuven, Belgium:Leuven University Press. (Pp. 645-648).

Prouty, G. (1994). Theoretical Evolutions in Person-Centered/Experiential Therapy: Applications to Schizophrenic and Retarded Psychoses, Westport, Conn.: Praeger.

Prouty.G. (1997). Pre-Therapy; A treatment for the psychotic retarded. Handbook of Treatment of Mental Illness and Behavioral Disorder in Children and Adults with Mental Retardation. American Psychiatric Press (In Press).

Prouty, G. and Cronwall, M. (1990) Psychotherapy with a depressed mentally retarded adult: An application of Pre-Therapy. In Dosen, A. and Menolascino, F. (Eds.), Depression in Menially Retarded Children and Adults. Leiden, The Netherlands: Logan Publications (pp. 281-293).

Prouty, G. and Kubiak, M. (1988). Pre-Therapy with mentally retarded/psychotic clients. Psychiatric Aspects of Mental Retardation Reviews. 7( 10), (pp. 62-66).

Ruderich, S.,& Menolascino, F. (1984). Dual diagnosis of mental retardation: An overview. In F. Menolascino & J. Stark (Eds.), Handbook of Mental Illness in the Mentally Retarded. New York: Plenum Press, (pp.45-82).

Rogers. C. R. (1942). Counseling and Psychotherapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. Rogers, C. R. (1957), The necessary and sufficientconditions of therapeutic personality change. Journal of Consulting Psychology. 21(2), (pp. 95-103).

Rogers, C.R. (1957). The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 22(2), 95-103.

Van Werde, D. (1990). Psychotherapy with a retarded schizo-affective woman: An application of Prouty's pre-therapy. In Dosen, A.,

VanGennep, A. and Zwanikken,G. (Eds.), Treatment of Mental Illness and Behavioral Disorder in the Mentally Retarded: Proceedings of

International Congress, May 3rd and 4th. Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Leiden, The Netherlands: Logon Publications.

The Person-Centered Journal, Volume 5, Issue 1,
1998 Printed in the U.S.A. All rights reserved.

REMEMBERING ELEANOR:

A DIFFERENT WAY OF CONTACT

Jerold D. Bozarth

University of Georgia

Forty years ago I was employed as a Psychiatric Rehabilitation Counselor in a State Mental Hospital. The primary clientele were individuals with chronic long term psychosis. I had no ex- perience or supervision as a therapist or counselor, no formal group experience and had never heard of Carl Rogers. The job, however, consisted primarily of individual therapy with long term "psychotics". My role also included that of assisting individuals to undertake training, helping them to become employed and to live outside of the hospital. Most of my referrals were from patients and from ward attendants. Out of desperation and naivete, I learned to depend upon these individuals for the direction of their lives. Out of our relationships with each other and from their own resources, many of the individuals were discharged from the hospital. Many were em- ployed. Others significantly improved the quality of their lives. There was no systematic way that I dealt with individuals; they dictated the means, the mode and directions of contact. This way differs from McWilliams' and Prouty's "Pre-Therapy" theory of psychological contact (See this issue). They reiterate Prouty's (1994) contention that Pre-Therapy is an evolution of Client- Centered Therapy (and, in Prouty's 1994 contention, also of Experiential Therapy). I personally consider this assertion a serious no non-sequitur of Rogers' theory although, perhaps, not of Experiential Therapy. The theory could easily become a resurgence of the therapist as an expert who de-termines contexts for the client. The theory is manifested by a "how to do it system" of making contact with clients disabled with mental retardation as well with those who are "functionally re- tarded". In my view, such systems may be tolerated in a client-centered framework if they do not distract from the basic thrust of the self authority of clients. This is, however, often a danger of "how to do it" guidelines (e.g., the Human Relations Models that prostitute Rogers' concepts). I am sure that the intent of the theory is to help individuals to increase the self authority of such clients. However, the internal chaos of humans is not resolved by the security of therapeutic systems and therapist expertise. My view is that the value of the Pre-Therapy system is primarily that of giving the therapist the security of something to do in order to be comfortable in the relationship. I believe that the relationship begins immediately upon contact. I disagree with McWilliams' and Prouty's conceptualization that their guidelines are preparatory to the relationship. Such a guide- line is highly suggestive, albeit I suspect denied by them, that the therapeutic relationship is the verbal discourse manifested by "empathic listening". That is, the contact is made in order that more verbal connective discourse is possible. Eleanor is one dramatic example of a less controlled and less systematic way of contact.

Eleanor was one of the individuals who taught me to stay dedicated to the remarkable internal resources of human beings. Eleanor was referred to me by a ward attendant who had several hi "patients" improve after seeing me. She was a patient in a locked ward of a conventional sun mental hospital in the 1950's. I did not know upon referral that Eleanor was functionally retarded

Remembering Eleanor

hallucinatory and unable to leave the ward. I learned this fast when I entered the urine saturated atmosphere of the locked ward. I was introduced to a woman with bulging eyes and a Cheshire grin who was sitting on the floor playing with her feces. I felt that it would have been discourteous for me to follow my inclination to retreat. I started by sitting on a chair facing her, and eventually found myself silting on the floor next to her. She quit playing with her feces and mainly looked at me with an incredulous grin. I explained my role of helping individuals to gel out of the hospital, helping them find what they wanted to do and so on. No doubt I talked too much. "What do you think about what I am saying, Eleanor?" I asked. She smiled and uttered a guttural sound. I followed with a number of other statements that I no longer recall. Finally, just sitting there in silence in all of my anxiety and feelings of inadequacy, I spontaneously blurted, "Do you think that you might be interested in beauty school?" After a long pause, she offered an affirmative nod. We scheduled another appointment and continued to meet once a week. After about six weeks, Eleanor improved significantly in her personal hygiene and grooming, increased her verbal communication, and her hallucinations diminished. This resulted in a transfer to an open ward. She eventually obtained off grounds passes and worked in an industrial assignment in the hospital. I lost track of her when I moved from the hospital to another job. She had, however, increased the quality of her life. The moment of movement for her followed my question concerning her interest in beauty school. The statement was not very empathic nor did it have any intent to produce an effect, including "psychological" contact. We were already in relationship when contact occurred. The relationship simply continued to develop.

The scenario with Eleanor, which I use to represent other therapy relationships, is considerably different from the recommended response repertoire of the theory of Pre-Therapy. There was no theoretical intent to assist concrete reality contact, or to develop affective contact, or to assist communicative contact. Neither were there intentions to assist awareness functions or reinforce particular experiences. There was no pre-therapy preceding the relationship. We were in contact the moment I decided that I could not retreat (maybe before). I did not look for areas of behavioral confirmation as markers for success. Mostly I sat insecure, anxious about how much she might be helped, and in a muddled search for the means, medium and mode that we might extend and enrich our contact.

It is, perhaps, easier to have form and structure by which to make contact. The danger of all such systematic approaches is that the therapist in varied degrees becomes the guide, determiner and crux of success. The dedication to client self authority becomes contaminated with "how to do it" rather than with the person to person relationship even when this is not the intention of the theory.

The recent conclusions of research reviews (Duncan, Hubble & Miller, 1997; Duncan & Moynihan, 1994; Stubbs & Bozarth, 1994) on psychotherapy outcome indicate that the client/therapist relationship and client resources (extratherapeutic variables) account for seventy percent of the variance of success. Relationship, contact and connection are virtually the same phenomenon. These concepts are what goes on between the therapist and client. Differences of interacting are not predicated upon diagnoses or levels of intelligence (functional or otherwise) from a client-centered perspective. Interactions are predicated upon the particular individual rather than upon a group of individuals. The relationship, the contact, becomes different with each and every individual, noticing not particular contexts but struggling with the nuances of the relationship. I suggest that Rogers did not make much ado about contact since he did take it as a given. It is, in fact, interesting that in an early version of his (Rogers, 1957) integration article in a discussion paper (Jules Seem an, personal communication) at The University of Chicago identified this condition as, "relationship contact". In the integration article (Rogers, 1957), cited by McWilliams and Prouty, Rogers changed the term to "psychological contact". Rogers (1959)

Jerold D. Bozarth

changed this again in his actual theory statement to just, "contact". This suggests to me that he simply meant that the two individuals had to in some way be present to each other.

Some might argue that those individuals identified as "severely retarded" require a more concentrated systematic attention. I agree with my friend David Spahn, who has worked for over twenty five years with severely retarded individuals. He has often been the trouble shooter for the treatment system because he resolves problem situations through his relationships with the individuals. He notes: "Treating individuals as individuals, accepting them as human beings is more helpful than anything else." (Spahn, Personal Communication) His contact with the individuals is himself, not a preconceived system of interaction.

McWilliams and Prouty have presented a form and structure to help develop contact and more meaningful relationships with some individuals. I suggest that there are also other ways of contact, that contact is part of the relationship and that caution should be given to any pre-conceived way of being with people.

REFERENCES

Duncan, B. L., Hubble, M. A. & Miller, S.D. (1997). Psychotherapy with "impossible "cases: The efficient treatment of therapy veterans. New York: W. W. Norton & Co. Duncan, B. L., & Moynihan, D. W. (1994). Applying outcome research: Intentional untilization of the client's frame of reference. Psychotherapy, 31(2), 294-302. Prouty, G. (1994). Theoretical evolutions in Person-Centered/Experiential Therapy: Applications to shizophrenic and retarded psychoses. Westport, Conn.: Praeger. Rogers, C. R. (1957). The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 2/(2),95-103.

Rogers, C. R. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality, and interpersonal relationships, as developed in the client-centered framework. In Koch, S. (Ed.), Psychology: A Study of a Science, Vol3. Formulations oftheperson and the social context (pp. 184-256). New York, McGraw-Hill.

Stubbs, J. P., & Bozarth, J. D. (1994). The Dodo bird revisited: A qualitative study of psychotherapy efficacy in research (Special Issue). Journal of Applied and Preventive Psychology, 3. 109-120.

PERSON-CENTERED TRAINING: RESPONSE TO DAVE
MEARNS

Peggy Natiello, Ph.D.

In Vol 4, Issue 1 of this journal Dave Mearns says, "With the exception of the contribution of the Chicago Counseling Center, formal, qualifying training courses in client-centered therapy have not been prevalent over the past 20 years in the USA". He also hopes "that this paper and further publications will stimulate the growth of person-centered literature on training". I respond here to Dave's "hope" with alacrity and appreciation.

The invitation to dialogue with Dave and others who are currently engaged in training is important. In Mexico in 1982, Rogers gathered a number of us together and strongly urged us to share ideas, training developments and progress. I made some effort to do that to no avail. I appreciate Dave's nudge years later and hope it will breed more discussion. In addition, it gives me an opportunity to describe a training program that has existed hi the United States since 1980 and whose success has been well documented in a research project done by an unbiased researcher.

What follows here is a glimpse into the history of the lndepth Training Program in the Person-centered Approach, a program that has prepared over 100 client-centered therapists and person-centered facilitators to function with integrity in their various professions. The discussion will include the origin of the program, an overview of the educational process and content that we consider crucial to the training of person-centered professionals, some conclusions from a study conducted among former participants by an independent researcher, and an explanation of the obstacles to "qualifying" (Mearns, p.31) learners in the United States for licensure in the fields of counseling and psychotherapy. Those obstacles led the staff of The Indepth Training Program to leave accreditation and qualifying in the hands of the learners along with other responsibilities for their education.

HISTORY

In 1980, Curtis Grat, Ruth Sanford and I, in consultation with Carl Rogers, launched the In-depth Training Program in the Person-centered Approach in Port Jefferson, New York. Our decision was a response to Roger's gnawing concern about the lack of intellectual rigor demonstrated by people who identified themselves as "person-centered facilitators". That concern resulted in his support of formalized person-centered training - something he had resisted since his resignation from academia. He explained his change of heart in an interview in 1981.

I am a person who is reasonably sensitive emotionally, fairly intuitive, but I also like the fact that I have a brain, and I like to use it. This new direction is an attempt to discover ways in which people would both experience and learn a person-centered Approach as whole persons with experience and emotions involved, but with their intellects also involved.

Peggy Natiello

The new direction to which Rogers refered first came to fruition in 1980 as A Learning Program in the Person-centered Approach in LaJolla, California. Our Indepth Training Program in the Person-centered Approach began the same year. Our first purpose statement read in part:

To offer serious learners an opportunity to study, experience and practice the skills that are central to the person-centered approach. Carl Rogers outlines the cognitive aspects of this experience. "The purpose is to generate the excitement of new learnings about the person-centered approach, its current trends and its implications for the future. It seeks to give a solid grounding in this approach. To this end, it will include such elements as the basic hypotheses; past and present research studies; the underlying philosophy; the major theoretical formulations. There will be

study and practice of the attitudinal skills; especially empathy. There will be presentation of some of the new modes of science which would completely change our concept of re search. There will be consideration of the implications of this approach to our social fu

ture. " The experiential aspect is based on the person-centered approach which involves trusting and empowering the unique person rather than relying on the expertise of an other.

After Ruth Sanford resigned in 1985, the Indepth Training Program continued in its original form and intent until 1990. At that time, Curtis Graf and I took several years off and in 1992, in response to professionals' requests to offer more training, began to convene four- to six-day residential meetings each year. We called them Person-centered Training Experiences. Last year, as a result of both ongoing formative research and an indepth study we conducted with all graduates of our early programs, we devised a new format for the Indepth Training Program in the Person-centered Approach. I will explain the recent development later under "New Program Design".

ORIGINAL PROGRAM DESIGN

A Decision About University Affiliation.

At the outset of The Indepth Training Program, I was a frustrated full-time faculty member in a Human Development graduate program in a major New Jersey university. The faculty in our department was strongly versed in and committed to the tenets of person-centered education. Students in our program participated in the creation of their own curriculum within the boundaries of the field, engaged in self-assessment, carried much responsibility for the design and documentation of their own learning. Our program was one of the most sought after and cost effective in the graduate section of the University. Many more students than we could accomodate were beating on our admission door. Student enthusiasm is not generally the norm in American graduate education and it made the administration very suspicious. At one school-wide faculty meeting, the Dean of the College of Education referred to the program's faculty as "The Manson Gang" (named after Charles Manson, murderous cult leader).

Our efforts to maintain the principles of person-centered education within that autocratic system led us to elect one of our faculty every two years to interface with the university administration. His/her role was a political one requiring continued justification for our immensely popular educational process. Shortly after my own 1982 decision to resign in frustration and protest, the university closed down the program, along with a number of other departments all having to do with the helping professions. The reason given was "financial efficiency". The huge outcry from students and alumni failed to change the decision.

Needless to say, I was not particularly interested in having The Indepth Training Program in the Person-centered Approach affiliated with a university-especially the one where I was teaching! Ruth and Curtis, who had their own stories about traditional authoritarian education, were also not hopeful about integrating our program into a graduate school in the New York area. Even

Person-centered Training

then, the trend in the United States for the fields of psychotherapy and counselling was toward uniformity and exclusivity. Only those who attended American Psychological Association approved schools were allowed to sit for the psychology licensing examinations. The requirements were, and continue to be, stringent and inflexible. Even if we had affiliated with a university, our learners would not have access to licensing.

However, we did negotiate for accreditation of The Indepth Training Program with the New York State Department of Education over a year-long period. The end result of winning accreditation would have forced us to seriously misrepresent what we were doing and would still not have qualified our learners to sit for any examination. All of us valued the integrity of the program too much to compromise both content and process, so we decided to remain independent. In keeping with our philosophy of empowerment and responsibility, we turned the matter of individual accreditation over to our learners. Many of them were graduate students who, with our support and documentation, approached their own institutions to earn credit for their educational experience and integrate it into their own graduate programs. Most of their negotiations were successful.

We do not regret our decision not to affiliate or qualify, nor did we ever consider overturning it. Learners in our program now are able to earn the continuing education credit needed to maintain standing in various helping professions, but we do not qualify them to sit for a licensing examination. In the United States such preparation requires years of graduate education conducted under the umbrella of a university, in programs tailored to the licensing exam. Those exams have very little to do with the mission or vision of client-centered therapists or person-centered facilitators.

Staff of the Training Program.

Ruth, Curtis and I had diverse backgrounds and experience. Each of us had a private practice. Ruth taught in a graduate Counselor Education program. Curtis was a doctoral candidate whose dissertation compared the theories of Rogers and Kohut. I was a Human Development Consultant, nearing the end of a doctoral dissertation focused on the nature of learning in the person-centered approach, and a faculty member of a graduate program in Human Development.

We all shared a common dedication to the person-centered approach. Together with Carl Rogers, we had staffed a number of in-depth, person-centered workshops as well as a four-day seminar designed for study of the theory. Our personal and professional relationships had deepened through our experiences together on person-centered staffs. We considered ourselves to be colearners with other participants, hi keeping with that philosophy we had our own learning goals, shared serious issues between us with our fellow participants so there were no "family secrets", received feedback regularly, and participated fully in community meetings.

Participants.

Our interest was in training any helping professionals who sought io facilitate the development of others in the person-centered approach - not just counselors and psychotherapists. Our original community consisted of 18 learners from the fields of social work, university and secondary education, nursing, psychotherapy, counseling, and business. Successive communities have reflected the same diversity.

We had two categories of learners. Those who wanted a certificate documenting that they hadindepth training had more rigorous accountability in writing papers, bringing tapes or written reportsof their work for supervision and feedback, consistent journal-keeping, and a total of three years inthe program. (Other adjustments were made regularly as a result of a formative research project inwhich we were engaged.) Other participants - usually well-established professionals -chose to comeonly fia^aisar or did not want or need a certificate. They were free to validate their

Peggy Natiello

own learning in whatever way they wished, although we always asked for a synthesis paper at the end of the year.

Those professionally established learners lent a significant degree of intellectual maturity to the cognitive aspect of our program. Their professional and educational experience resulted in more challenging and rigorous theoretical sessions than I have experienced in other training programs I have visited. That group, along with advanced learners who had been in the program for two years or more, took a significant role in peer supervision and facilitation, and had the opportunity to apply as staff members for other projects we were convening. In one Training Program group, the learners developed a workshop on gender issues from the ground up. They took the entire responsibility for setting the focus, writing a brochure, nominating staff, negotiating fees and physical site, marketing the project, and inviting a Training Program staff member to facilitate the workshop with them.

Individualized Learning.

Beginning with the initial letter of application, learners were expected to set individual learning goals that were consistent with their professional aspirations and their commitment to developing the self-awareness, self-acceptance, self-responsibility, congruence, and the ability to forgo control of those with whom they were working - crucial aspects of the training in our value system. However, the individualized learning was always set in the larger field of person-centered theory and practice.

Toward that end, we laid out an initial curriculum that was absolutely consistent with our purpose statement above. Each group of learners met the components of that curriculum, but the process of fulfilling it differed each year.

Although the staff, and increasingly the learners, were devoted to rigorous work in the person-centered approach, we welcomed participants trained in other orientations. Always, we were stimulated by the challenges their presence provided to staff and other learners to refine and strengthen our own belief system. The intellectual sparring saved all of us from becoming true believers, followers, or parrots - an accusation often leveled at person-centered communities. The research we conducted documents that most learners of different persuasions changed the nature of their work quite radically as a result of the training. (See research conclusions below). Their feedback demonstrated that it was the consistency and integrity of the educational process rather than the theoretical work that convinced them of the value of moving in the direction of less control, increased authenticity and empathy in their relationships and more trust in allowing clients/students/patients to find their own directions to growth and healing.

Group Process.

The life of the learning community itself generated an interactive process that contributed profoundly to the development of psychological maturity called upon for person-centered facilitation. Learners were constantly receiving feedback on the quality of their relating, their facilitative skills, their sensitivity and perception, and their written work. The community became a laboratory for confronting all aspects of personal, intellectual and group development - power issues, conflict resolution, responsibility for self versus other, goal setting for individual and group learning contracts, cooperation versus competition, intellectual understandings and theory building.

Rather than a staff-established agenda, the community made creative decisions about its process of learning. For example, when one learner came into unexpected contact with traumatic early childhood abuse, the group stayed with her for hours responding in all sorts of ways to her pain and fear. When that session came to an organic close, a participant asked her whether she could agree to a group review of the audiotape. The idea was that anyone could stop the tape at

Person-centered Training

any time and ask for feedback on their response. The learner who had done the work said she would also like lo stop at those points where she had felt helped, understood, facilitated or impeded in her work. We spent the rest of the day working with that session, with particular emphasis on the facilitative conditions, the wisdom of the client and the impact of client-directed rather than therapist-directed therapy.

Generally, after the community had gone through a group session (and those were often very intense), we would process the experience with the intention of illuminating person-centered theory. The groups became very skillful in integrating the experience and the intellectual understanding/articulation of what had occurred in person-centered terms. In reviewing the session, learners were given more feedback on their ways of interacting, listening, or expressing their feelings and ideas.

The learning community would sometimes break down into empathy labs or learning partnerships. Those decisions came quite spontaneously or in response to learners resisting the larger group, wanting a change, or becoming aware of specialized interests they wanted to explore. Often learners who had particular areas of expertise would offer or be asked by other participants to conduct a seminar for those interested. Peer learning and teaching was a highly valued aspect of the Training Program.

Curriculum.

Staff commitment to rigorous cognitive work was strong. Sticking to that commitment without directing the group, honoring personal processes and trusting that they would not impede intellectual engagement, and facilitating the integration of intellectual and affective learning required skillful balancing. Our increasing adeptness in fostering integrated learning was reflected yearly in the growing ease with which learners were able to move fluidly between intellectual and affective modes.

Before the group met for the first time, each learner received articles that laid the theoretical foundation of the person-centered approach. We provided a carefully wrought bibliography for learners who wanted to receive a certificate documenting indepth training or wanted to go beyond the discussions and resources used during our meetings. We offered a library of books, articles, and videos that were available for borrowing, and use during the weekend meetings. We audiotaped every meeting during the weekend, and learners were encouraged to sign out tapes, with promise of confidentiality, and review some of the seminars or group experiences through the lens of person-centeredness. Many learners reflected on their personal work and theoretical discussions during community meetings, and said these tapes extended the cognitive and personal meanings of their experience enormously.

During the first meeting, we brainstormed lists of learning expectations and goals. Those lists were typed, handed out, and referred to during the year to monitor our progress. The staff contributed ideas by referring to their own work in progress, and new areas of interest we were exploring. We believed that we taught best when we recognized our own opportunity to learn, and we genuinely saw other learners as facilitators of our own pedagogic efforts.

We recommended that each learner keep a journal, and we did the same. The three major areas of learning we stressed and recommended for review in the journals were 1) Theoretical understanding of the concepts in the person-centered approach and other systems of personality theory, 2) Personal development, i.e. selfawarenenss, self-acceptance, congruence, self-responsibility, personal empowerment and 3) Improvement in the skills and attitudes of the facilitative conditions. Often excerpts from personal journals were shared in the community to reveal additional meanings gleaned from reflection on our own processes. Learners who wanted the certificate usually chose to hand their journals to one of the staff for feedback.

Peggy Natiello

Opportunities for individual learners to work on a person-centered staff.

In planning the Indepth Training Program, we had decided to respond to the often expressed need for experience in facilitating on a person-centered staff. We had written into the brochure the passage that follows:

Opportunities for Staff Facilitation Opportunities will be open during the year to facilitate as a staff person in a variety of person-centered experiences:

Learners will be encouraged to initiate workshops in their own communities or professional

settings. The staff and learning community members will be available for consultation on the

design and for formal processing at the conclusion of the experience.

There will be a limited number of openings for co-facilitation on the staff of person- centered workshops sponsored by The Center for Interpersonal Growth. The selection of learners for staff experiences in facilitation will be determined by a self and peer evaluation.

The selection process was consistent with the person-centered system. We did not believe that the staff should exert power over the choice of co-facilitators, and we wanted the selection process to be worked out by the community of learners.

The group devised a system whereby learners who felt ready to serve on staff could raise the request. They would receive feedback from everybody in the community, including staff, on then-readiness to facilitate based on the experience together in the learning community. In preparation for giving feedback we did readings about person-centered facilitation, the principles of giving and receiving feedback, and discussed at length the difference between "facilitative", "facilitator" and "facilitate". During the third year, at the suggestion of a learner, we added a staff position for an advanced learner on the next year's Indepth Training Program. That proved to be wonderfully rich for us as a staff and for the continuing development of the training program.

The facilitator selection aspect of the training program had a huge impact on learning to give and receive feedback, on understanding the importance of self-assessment and openness to hearing others experience of one's self, on exploring the distinct meanings of person-centered facilitation, on being responsible for oneself and to the group in making a final decision, and on providing actual experience in group facilitation. The final decision rested with the learner who had asked for the staff position. Only once did we have a conflict between the communities' feedback and the learner's decision to pursue the position.

RESEARCH ON INDEPTH TRAINING PROGRAM

In 1992 Curtis Graf and I commissioned a highly experienced researcher to design and conduct a study that would objectively measure the effectiveness of the In-Depth Training Program in The Person-centered Approach. The study sought to identify and measure those selected learnings that participants encountered as group members in the learning community, and to what extent, if any, the concepts of empathy, congruence, acceptance, trust in others to solve their own problems, and personal empowerment had an effect on members' self, work and personal relationships up to the time of the study.

Conducted by mail, a universe of 80 questionnaires was fielded on March 9,1992 to past participants of the training program whose addresses we were able to trace. The study closed on April 1 Oth, yielding a return rate of 63%. The mean number of years that had lapsed between the study and respondents' participation was 5.16. Of the respondents, 60% had masters degrees,

Person-centered Training

10% had doctorates, and 2 % had somecollege education but had not earned undergraduate degrees.

Below is a copy of the researcher's Conclusion section.

Conclusion

Based on the findings from this study, it seems the Indepth Training Program has been a great benefit to and has had a very positive impact on participants' lives.

Following are some of the more primary findings obtained from the data collected in the Indepth Training Program study:

After their experience in the learning community, 90% of the participants would not have liked the more traditional approach to learning
Reasons include: "I learn more from non-directed, interactive experience" (40%), "learnmuck about myself by being more active" (36%) "more interested in learning when I do ii interactively" (11%)
94% feel their participation contributed something, however small, to the development of the learning community
44% feel their participation contributed greatly to the development of the community
All respondents (100%) feel they contributed something no matter how small, to their own development
80% feel their participation contributed greatly to their own development
82% feel that staff facilitators provided enough interaction
88% feel the staff's openness/involvement in the community promoted their own (member's) participation in the group
88% believe the staff's openness/involvement in the group promoted the group process
86% experienced theoretical learning. Of these 95% utilized that theory to understand their ownexperience within the group (98 % use that theory today in their work)
Respondents have incorporated the conditions below into their work as a result of their participation in the Learning Program: empowerment (98%). congruence (92%) empathy (90%), acceptance (88%). and trust in othersto solve their own problems (86%)
96% feel that learning can integrate ideas and feelings for reasons that include: "theory andpractice allow mind and soul to work together" (42%), "you must have both to make the process work (successfully)" (29%), "it enhances the learning experience " (29%). "that's the way I learn best"(23%)
92% were generally satisfied with the Training Program
86% would recommend the Program to a friend/colleague
12% would like to see some staff/program related changes made
10 would like to have seen more of these items included in the Training Program: videotapes, taped interviews, handouts/psychodrama

The researcher's recommendation for responding to learners' input was:

• Integrate these tools in the same interactive format as in the Indepth Training Program: audio/visual aids, handouts, book lists, taped interviews and a step-by-step analysis of learnings.

Peggy Natiello

* Using this method may help some participants through an easier transition for learning in the person-centered approach. For some, traditional methods may help them better identify the theories that are being introduced through largely non-traditional means.

Although we felt edified by the results of this research, we decided to redesign our Indepth Training Program. The new format attempts to respond to learners' apparent need for more in-depth and self-designed theoretical work and for reduction of the residential requirements. In addition, it gives our learners access to the extraordinary pool of academic and supervisory talent in this country.

NEW PROGRAM DESIGN

The overwhelming task of coordinating, marketing, recruiting, and running the Indepth Training Program in the Person-centered Approach together with maintaining large private therapy and consulting practices proved to be too much for Curtis and me. So, in 1992 we developed the Intensive Training Experiences. These shorter residential training experiences lasted from four to six days and were far less ambitious in theoretical depth and less comprehensive than the in-depth training we had conducted for ten years.

However, judging from the number of returnees and their positive feedback, this kind of person-centered training is still very much in demand. Our question has become, "How can we offer the people interested in a more indepth person-centered training than the two of us have the time, money and energy to provide?"

The design we are presently offering consists of three six-to-ten day residential Intensive Experiences each year, not too different from what we are doing now. Any learner who demonstrates appropriate interest and professional need will be welcome at those experiences. Curtis's and my involvement will not extend beyond the demands of these experiences unless we are asked by learners for more.

To accomodate the needs and wants of learners who require more theoretical specialization or want to integrate the training into their graduate programs, we have invited some of the seminal thinkers in the person-centered approach around the country to form the equivalent of an adjunct faculty. The response from those we have contacted has been positive. We now have an extensive list of the outstanding theorist/professionals in this country, and several from abroad who will make themselves available for participating learners. These include Jerold Bozarth, Barbara Brodley, Irene Fairhurst, Nat Raskin, Julius Seeman, John Shlien, Carol Wolter-Gustafson, and John K. Wood.

Although the demand for supervision is not as great, we have contacted some of the person-centered practioners that consistently adhere to the values of the approach to work with learners under the same kind of contract as the adjunct faculty. Among those practioners are Jenny Biancardi, Armin Klein, Kathy Kennedy, Dana Mann, Barbara Mautner and Suzanne Spector.

Here is how the system will work. Participants who want more indepth learning, supervision, or mentoring can review a booklet containing biographical statements describing each faculty person. Those statements include the faculty member's major areas of interest, experience and writing. It is the learner's responsibility to reach out to the faculty member or supervisor with whom they believe they have something to learn, and to negotiate an arrangement that will meet both persons' needs. That arrangement will include consultation fee, feedback on articles or dissertations that learners might be writing, indepth exploration of certain issues of interest to the learner, etc.

Those learners will work out a more general contract with Curtis or me in which they will spell out their learning goals - both theoretical and personal - and the way they intend to pursue and document them. The contract includes participation in at least three of our residential training ex

Person-centered Training

periences. These, too, can be negotiated. If learners have sufficient training experience, they can substitute another person-centered event for their residential requirement. Some of these events could include international forums, intercultural meetings, the LaJolla Program, or other person-centered meetings with a focus that is appropriate to the learner's contract.

CONCLUSION

I have attempted here to describe a training program in the United States that is operating without university affiliation or the ability to qualify learners to sit for licensing examinations. I hope I have communicated the high quality of the program - quality that our staff could not have realized if we had agreed to work under a university umbrella. We know there are many professors around the country trying to incorporate person-centered learning and values into their teaching. They provide an oasis in the academic desert, and we are grateful for their efforts. However, it is our conviction that the most honest way to offer a complete program of person-centered training, where process and content can co-exist with integrity, is outside the walls of the system. Fortunately, creative graduate schools where mature learners are able to take a major role in designing their own programs are gaining accreditation. Students from accredited schools like The Union Institute, Empire, Saybrook Institute, and Antioch are encouraged to seek out programs like The Indepth Training Program in the Person-centered Approach for incorporation into their curriculum. Learners hi these programs are consistently getting academic credit for their work with us. Some faculty members from these and other accredited less traditional schools, whose graduates are also not allowed to sit for licensing exams, are spearheading a strong movement to change that ruling.

Can a program that does not qualify survive in this age of credentials? We do not know. It is, indeed, a struggle, but so far satisfied learners have sent enough new participants to keep us flourishing. If the time comes when it is no longer possible to survive, our dedication to person-centered training will have to find another cause. In the meantime, we are proud of a program that has contributed to the professional practice and personal enhancement of so many person-centered practioners who continue to create an untold number of ripples in the large pool of human services.

REFERENCES

Mearns, D. (1997). Dynamics in client-centered therapy training. The Person-Centered Journal, 4(1) pp .31-43. Natiello, P. (1981). Interview with Carl R. Rogers on the nature 6f teaching and learning in the person-centered

approach. Unpublished manuscript

A CASE FOR CLIENT-CENTERED CAREER COUNSELING

Jo Cohen
Ruth Hassan
Paula Bickham

PART I. INTRODUCTION
BY JO

Information services, trait-factor and other directive, decision making models of career counseling are largely inconsistent with a client-directed course of therapy. The highly reflective stance that is characteristic of client-centered counseling eschews interacting with clients in a therapist-focused, therapist-locus manner. The failure to address more long-standing and/or core client concerns is a problem in decision making and trait-factor approaches. The failure of client-centered therapists to conduct and to publish on-going programs of research on the effectiveness of their approach to specific populations contributes to making its usefulness suspect. The current article presents a summary of client-centered career counseling literature. This is followed by a transcribed video-tape demonstration and follow-up dialogue. Finally, two commentaries on the interview are provided.

The origins of vocational and educational counseling belong to public schools, and to military and post war life. Placing individuals in programs of study and training compatible with their interests and skills were identified by Parsons (1909) as requiring a true reasoning between knowledge of self and the world of work. Testing became a key variable in the future of vocational guidance. A presumption of the need for testing was and remains that characteristics of the individual accessible through the testing process are less, or are not at all accessible otherwise. Judiciousness and accuracy in choice of tests has a strong role in psychological counseling. It is, indeed one of the few nearly exclusive provinces of the practicing psychologist. School and military use of tests was and continues to be desirable for obvious reasons. Reliance on testing over and above reasonable and humane (the core conditions) human relationship abilities is perhaps testings' greatest weakness/failing/insufficiency. A less directive tradition, emphasizing emotional factors, was made highly visible by its chief proponent, Carl Rogers, whose exposure to educational philosophy included the works of Dewey, Kilpatrick, Thorndike and Rugg. The non-directive, client-centered, and then person-centered stance permitted consideration of testing, not as the mainstay of the relationship, but as a possible alternative toward achieving a clients' goals.

In his early writings, Rogers had a disposition toward eschewing testing as part of the counseling process. In 1946 (p. 141) he stated, "For the counselor to interpret tests to the client is to say, 'I am the expert, I know more about you than you can know yourself, and I shall impart that superior knowledge.'" Furthermore, "Tests which are initiated by the counselor are a hindrance.. .[they]

Client-Centered Career Counseling

tend to increase defensiveness on the part of the client, to lessen... acceptance of self, to decrease ... sense of responsibility, to create an attitude of dependence upon the expert." The reliance on therapist expertise, nearly implicit in the testing process, jeopardizes therapists concentration on their clients' locus.

Client-centered assessment occurs within a humanistic framework. Testing is accomplished within the context of valuing the worth of the client as a person. C.H. Patterson (1971) maintains that clients should be provided with enough information to make an informed decision about tests most appropriate for them, and should be facilitated toward their own self appraisal and assessment. The data must be communicated objectively and be understandable and acceptable. The therapists attitudes should include a belief in each persons' worth, respect for individuals, and a belief in the rights of individuals to self-direction, goal and value selection, and decision making (Patterson and Watkins, 1982). Suzanne Freeman's (1990) interview with Patterson cites him as saying, "I have come to the conclusion that these conditions [Empathy, Unconditional Positive Regard and Genuineness] are necessary and sufficient except when the client is lacking in some basic information, understanding, or basic skills... the client may come without an adequate understanding of his or her own aptitudes and abilities, without adequate information about the opportunities in the field-jobs, careers-the whole world of education and occupation." (p. 293-294)

Patterson (In Freeman, 1990) identifies the essentially non-directive counselor to be faced with the problem of how to go beyond the conditions, and how much to go beyond them. He emphasizes what not to do: giving a standard battery of tests, and instead suggests an empathic focus, on pieces of information that me client suggests are needed. "They do not have to ask you for a particular test, but they are asking indirectly if you listen carefully to them." (p. 295) Patterson advocates structuring the counseling relationship, particularly when a client expects you to be the expert, and adheres to the view that career and personal counseling are inseparable. He discourages counselors from directing clients away from personal problems.

Super (1950/1988) proposes that the vocational adjustment process involves die implementation of a self-concept. Making a vocational choice and adjusting to an occupation involves developing a picture of the kind of person one is, and men trying to make mat concept a reality. Super believes that traditional forms of career counseling have an implicit assumption that vocational maladjustment is the result of lack of information about self or the world of work. He purports that exclusive emphasis on such facts relies, unjustifiably, on trust in logical and rational tendencies of people. Acknowledging human "fallibility in logic," Super purports that vocational counseling as personal counseling sees vocational adjustment as an issue of attitudes more than facts. Non-directive theorists especially, says Super, would be more inclined (than would a directive therapist), to respond to a clients' uncertainty, and other aspects of the psychological self, than to the question of what work the client might be best suited for. In exploring one's objective and subjective selves, the client asks how this can be reconciled, and reorganizes to achieve better self-integration. Super himself viewed the distinction between vocational and personal counseling to be artificial. "In choosing an occupation one is, in effect, choosing a means of implementing a self-concept.” (p. 356)

Super (1957) described career counseling as proceeding best when handled non-directively at first, often for several sessions. He discriminates client-centered and vocational counseling on the basis of the extent to which the latter helps the client "more expeditiously by facilitating his encounters with and his interpretations of reality." (p. 308) Similarly, Bozarth and Fisher (1990,

p. 53) identify the process of career counseling as therapist facilitation of client self-actualization, where career issues are presented, at least initially, as a key concern. The therapists capacity to suggest real or simulated work activities, and to make information about careers available to clients is an important ingredient in the vocational counseling process. The therapist

Jo Cohen, Ruth Hassan & Paula Bickman

does not enter into the relationship with treatment plans or goals in mind. According to Bozarth and Fisher (1990), this non-prescriptive, non-diagnostic, openly inquiring approach is alien to other schools of thought, World-of-work information, testing options and other resources known to be accessible might very well be shared, according to Bozarth and Fisher, when relevant for a client.

In their integrative model of career counseling, Borman and Dickson (1991, p. 16) recommend a systematic ecclecticism where specific theories are applied depending upon a client's developmental concern. Behaviorism would be applied, for instance, to reinforce information seeking, while client-centered counseling would be used after the individual explored information and was more prepared for the task of "self-exploration and the resolution of incongruencies between the experiencing self and the real or ideal self." Borman and Dickson's client-centered "technique" appears incompatible with traditional client-centered assumptions about sufficient attitudes/core conditions serving as the mainstay of the counseling relationship.

The demonstration interview presented here is not the first to be offered for professional consideration. In 1988, Miller (1988b) published clips of a career counseling session to demonstrate the goal of the counselor, as Crites viewed it, to promote the clarifying and implementing the client's self-concept in an acceptable occupational role. Miller's client-centered stance incorporates the core conditions as necessary but not sufficient. Miller supports the view that the career counseling relationship is a personal counseling relationship, that diagnosis, or labeling (e.g., of a client as unrealistic or undecided) is undesirable, and that the counselor maintains a fundamental belief in a client's knowing what is best for him or her. Inconsistent with more traditional and more common person-centered positions is Miller's perspective that "the client-centered counselor would more than likely make responses during the session with a high degree of leading techniques such as approval, and tentative interpretations. The purpose of these leading responses would be to encourage the client to talk about experiences as they are related to actualizing the self-concept in an occupational role." (p. 65)

Other observations made by Miller (1988a) regarding client-centered career counseling suggest the reciprocal influence of people upon one another as a dynamic of counseling relationships. His recommendations for creating meaningful counseling relationships include slowing down the process by refraining from administering an inventory in the first session, encouraging clients to talk about previous decisions made, both good and bad, and proceeding with the ever-present recognition that the client is the best expert.

PART II.

THIRTY MINUTE DEMONSTRATION SESSION BETWEEN RUTH AND JO

Jo: Well, I would welcome you to start wherever you would like to begin... knowing we didn't think through this beforehand. So if you would like to take a minute.

Ruth: Well, 1 don't know-I finished up this Masters in Counseling Psychology with Marital and Family and I had this idea that I might want to do therapy because I, myself, went through five years of Jungian Therapy and it transformed my life to such a degree that I thought this is a marvelous thing-. This really works. You know. I didn't quite believe it that it could be helpful. It had to be proven to me and 1 thought, well, if I could help other people have some kind of an empowerment such as I experienced - that would be a wonderful thing and then the internship was very enlightening and although I felt good about it, I fell you know that I can do this, that I can learn to do this better; I can get good at this. I found myself really missing adolescents. I used to teach high school and I taught French and I found myself missing that exuberance that they have, you know, and the potential they have and the fact that it feels like you're touching the future. It sounds trite but it does when you're working with them you feel like you're at the beginning.

Client-Centered Career Counseling

Jo: So much enthusiasm, excitement - that was missing.

Ruth: Yes and when you're meeting people in the situation I was in which was partial hospitalization, of course, you're meeting people at a different stage in life, you know. They have been knocked around and they have had all kinds of trauma and upset and problems, but looking back on adolescents my thought was that if you could only get people early and possibly plant some seeds, they would never end up like that. So that was, 1 don't know, 1 just really, I'm just not sure and then, of course, doing certification and guidance right now, I'm thinking, well, you know, that would be a way to touch that age group now, but with the internship and then talking to somebody and he says to me "we don't really do therapy, we do career counseling," that's important too, that's enormously important. I just don't know where 1 fit into the puzzle yet. I'm just not quite sure.

Jo: That you're hoping to find in a school setting that to work with adolescents you would be able to touch their lives in such a way that you would see this potential really emerge for them and not have the experience with the older people that you worked with - a sense of hopelessness, in a way, of being able to really significantly impact their future.

Ruth: It's a fit for me because I'm an optimistic person.

Jo: Yes, and it was actually rather disarming to find out that in the school system you might not really be able to make that kind of a profound impact upon you.

Ruth: But, see, I don't even expect, having taught high school for many years, I don't even expect to be able to see because 1 don't think all the time you ever see it and that' s OK with me not to see it. You know, I think learned as a high school teacher that I have no idea what's going to happen with what I've said. I don't know where it's going to go, where they're going to take it, what they're going to do and 1 will probably never see it. You know, maybe twenty years down the road they might remember, well this teacher said X Y and Z to me and hey, but....

Jo: It's not the knowledge of what will happen in the future, it's more of the experience in the present, as though you're touching, you're tapping into this potential for growth that you didn't feel working with the older people.

Ruth: That's exactly right.

Jo: It'sreally exciting toyou to tap into that, not so much knowing how it's going toturn out but really...

Ruth: To be at the beginning -I mean I know it's not the beginning for them in high school. They have had an enormous amount of information already. I mean I really do feel that teachers or guidance counselors can have -you know, you might just say a word to someone which could be the word they've been waiting to hear.

Jo: There's more of a potential for you to have that impact when you reach a teen than when you reach someone who has lived more life.

Ruth: And then you see certain kids that are going in the wrong direction and you know they still have so much time, you know, to correct

- and maybe you could be a pan of that.

Jo: There's much more hopefulness.

Ruth: Yes. You see one of my values is optimism and you know when 1 was in my internship and I would go into the partial hospitalization thing it was like ground hog day. Every morning you go in and would hear we had this conversation yesterday, and then we're having it again today, and then we might have it again tomorrow and we might have it every day this week.

Jo Coken, Ruth Hassan & Paula Bichnan

(phone rang)
Jo: Who could have anticipated that? (laughter). So it was ground hog day and they had just said that yesterday and felt really ...
Ruth: I mean I feel good. It was a wonderful experience and I feel like I really got close to people and I cared about them and they cared about

me and they gave me a party when I left and I felt like I had done something good. The thing of it is that I feel like my whole gear, my whole
speed - it might not be a good fit.

Jo: Your gear - your speed.
Ruth: It's a kind of an energy that I have to pull down, you know, into a different, deeper place for me that - and tap into something that is not
as natural a flow for me as it is with the adolescent energy.

Jo: It went fine. You learned so much. You had a good time. It really went better than fine. You fit in but it wasn't really you, the same kind of
energy. You feel more uplifted when you are working with adolescents.
Ruth: And they're funny.

Jo: Uh huh. Uh huh.
Ruth: I mean I like to laugh and you know and that's so important working with adolescents and you have plenty of opportunities to do that
because they're funny.

Jo: You cherish those moments and you live a lot more of those moments when you're with them so you would get to cherish more of life

that way.
Ruth: It feeds me I suppose. It's a kind of selfish thing but at the same time when I was working with them I fell that 1 was giving a lot to
(hem and I felt that there was a give and take there - there was a very fluid-it was a very productive give and take.

Jo: So it was more selfish in a sense that you felt that you got so much more out of it, but you felt that there was a lot of fluidity about being

able to give that back.
Ruth: Yes... and also there was a variety, you know, and there's a constant challenge because they are constantly challenging you. But to
methat'sexciting.Ithriveonchallengeso,youknow,whatever they would throw me il was just OK, let's go with this and....

Jo: You weren't upset by the sudden change. In fact, it was energizing, and much more so than day after day, it sounds like, the same story

you were kind of mulling through this stuff with older folks.
Ruth: Yes, and in the classroom too. You know some kids, it's their mission in life to upset your class room and for some strange reason I
enjoy that whole challenge - the struggle and OK, well let's see. I'll take you on. Let's see what you can do.

Jo: Strange as it seems, I love it!
Ruth: You know, which it probably sounds pretty sick to some people. I mean I had a wonderful job before I came here and I was
teaching al my son's school - teaching French. It was a very small school, a private school, so I had the luxury of small classes and it was
very tow pay but I enjoyed every single day I came to work - like almost every minute of all the years I was there and the other thing is that I
was working with people who were just I so wonderful, so it seems like I had the best of all worlds which made an enormous difference, you
know. I didn't make the money.

Client-Centered Career Counseling

You know to me it's more important to feel that joy and that happiness in a work setting than money. Jo: So it was the best of all worlds you say and it was also not a lot of money, so it was the best of the world that was important to

you.

Ruth: But the thing of it is though I don't know if I can support myself on that kind of money when I know there is a reality there; that this is another thing I am trying to think of that kind of situation. I have to think about reality and the money I need to live and that kind of thing so-but then I think too that well maybe I'll be with somebody and we'll pool our resources together. I could be with anyone. I could be with a female or male in terms of sharing living expenses and then maybe I could certainly cut down on what I need to spend to live.

Jo: So the draw for you toward going in the direction that makes you the happiest seems pretty clear also to be also a financially limiting place to be so you are thinking about what you would need to do in order to be reasonably comfortable financially, being able to be in a place where you could really enjoy your work.

Ruth: I don't know how unhappy I would be but the thing of it is that I've been poor and it didn't seem to bother me. So, I'm thinking I've done that and it was OK. I remember back and I've been rich and been miserable. So looking back at past experience, I can really see I've tried both of those things and actually I was happier when I was poor. It had nothing to do with being poor and being happy. I'm not equating those two. I'm just saying other things in my life were better that time than they were later on.

Jo: You don't necessarily see being happy as necessitating your being poor.

Ruth: Oh No. not at all! Like anybody I would prefer having the more money the better but it doesn't have a correlation to happiness for me.

Jo: You're saying you're thinking that the kind of a job that you really feel moved towards being in is going to leave you poorer rather than richer.

Ruth: Probably.

Jo: Probably. You're not sure about that.

Ruth: Because I came from a family-1 think I am very influenced by my mother in a sense that, you know, she had this thing about prestige and I'm hoping that I'm not living out her dynamic and I think I've obviously been tempted to do that at times in my life.

Jo: So it's disturbing to you to think that prestige may be guiding you.

Ruth: Well, I don't think it's guiding me, but I'm thinking that it has at times. I think when I married my husband it probably had something to do with the fact he was on the fast track and the rising star and somehow you know in my subconscious I thought well my mother would really like this. I mean I didn't think it at the time. I didn't put it together.

Jo: You were just living like that and you're thinking that at some level "I think might have been pleasing." Ruth: Uh huh -that I wasn' t aware of it because when I was growing up I was always a pleaser and I wanted to do the right

thing.

Jo: And so you're finding it difficult to know precisely what it is that will please you.

Ruth: U m huh.

Jo Cohen, Ruth Hassan & Paula Bickman

Jo: And to tease out what actions, how your values, lei me say it like this-to be able to really figure out whether your being drawn to
something based on what will really please you inside or what will be pleasing to someone else.
Ruth: See, that's the scary thing to me because I'm so afraid that I'm going to make a decision based on her values.

Jo: Uh, hmm - very frightening to think that I might decide on my career based on my mother's values.
Ruth: Even with relationships it's scary to think that, well, would I pick this person because he's a professional - that's my mother's value -
or would I pick this person who is a garbage collector but he's a poet. You know, it's just there's a whole lot of things that go into that. I
don't exactly know how strong I am sometimes in terms of being able to make those distinctions or see that clearly.

Jo: So, you're not questioning your goal or your desire. You know you want to make the decision that's for you but your fear is that you

won't be able to discriminate clearly what is genuinely your decision or your value.
Ruth: Or that I'll get sucked into this whole routine, this whole dynamic. I mean my mother died. She's dead. She died in January but, well,
she's there.

Jo: So when you say "sucked into this whole routine" I'm not sure precisely if you mean how
y ou’ ve beenaccustomed...
Ruth: ...make decisions based on the values that she - her values. Jo: It's something you're accustomed to
doing.
Ruth: Uh huh. It's a habit of many years. I mean it's why I stayed in a situation I should have left. There are so many things because that

was what she would have done. To me it's a question of courage and awareness.
Jo: So the thought that came to my mind-trusting yourself. Maybe what you mean by courage is the courage to trust yourself.
Ruth: And to go against my whole family because they all have very high prestige jobs. You know, they're judges and doctors and

lawyers and you know I see them at reunions and things and they have their measuring scale and I don't want to be a part of that scale and yet
it's very difficult to go against your whole context that you grew up through.

Jo: You mean to not yourself apply the scale.
Ruth: Uh huh, which I've done. I've done it. All through my life I've applied their rules. So for the first time I'm applying my own rules
and it just feels very shaky because first of all there's a lack of security and . . . .

Jo: Support.

Ruth: Uh huh and they're always sort of trying to push me in a certain direction, you know, trying to steer my choices in a certain way to kind
of conform and if I veer off the path, they will make excuses for me but they will still consider me as going off the straight and narrow.
Jo: So you don't want excuses made for you. You want the rule to shift so that an excuse is not

necessary, it's just accepted. You haven't veered off of anything.
Ruth: Uh huh but they don't see me that way. The problem is that this is my family and I can't cut them off. I don't want to. But they are a
powerful force in my life and they offer me a lot of support

Client-Centered Career Counseling

and love in many ways except when I'm going in a different way. It took them a along time to accept the fact that I made this huge life change
and it shook everything up for a long time. Now they have sort of settled down wiih that but I can see other choices I might make thai are
going to totally throw the whole thing out of whack again.

Jo: So you've introduced to them the idea that you might make decisions that would go against the grain. You've had the experience.

Ruth: Well, I did it the one time and we had a big lo do at Christmas time because, you know, every time I had gotten together with them
I was always listening and respectful and I just had
opinions and talked.

Jo: For the first time.

Ruth: and I got all this very reproving feedback because I had left my role, you know, of listening to the men talk. I have the knowledge and I
just decided to argue a few points and there was shock and horror all around.
Jo: It was an uncomfortable place for you to be.
Ruth: Well, I stuck to my guns but it was unpleasant to do that.
Jo: Unpleasant.
Ruth: It was unpleasant because I'm getting disapproval and nobody wants disapproval. Everybody wants approval and these are my family

and I especially need them - especially being a single mother.

Jo: And, so il's really more than just wanting to have the confidence and security in your own decision making and trust in yourself. You also
do want the support and approval of your family.
Ruth: To a degree, but I'm not willing to sacrifice my life for it, but I'm scared that 1 will. Sometimes I'm afraid that the pressure on me will

become such that I will decide I'm just going logo their way. I'm just afraid of that sometimes, which is kind of unbelievable. Ai my age
you'd think I would be over that,
Jo: Discouraging to find that you want their support and approval so much so thai you might abandon your own desires.
Ruth: Yeah, that's scary. I don't think I would do that but I'm obviously worried about doing that.
Jo: So, it's discouraging, it's frightening, it's worrisome.
Ruth: And then, of course, having a sixteen year old son, you know, he's got plenty of opinions as to what I should be doing,
Jo: The tone in that-it didn't suggest that you feel nearly as discouraged as ....

Ruth: Oh, no. He's flexible. He has an enormously flexible mind. Jo: So you do get some support from your son.
Ruth: Well, I don't look for it, I don't expect that to be his role to support me but we have an active dialogue and he’s certainly a lot
of fun but you know the thing of it is that it's interesting having this witness because you're living with a witness. When you're living with
someone he'll certainly ....

Jo Cohen, Ruth Hassan & Paula Bickman

Jo: I guess the sense that I got from it was not so much that you were saying I can lean on my son for support, but I guess I got the sense that you did have somebody who was accepting of the decisions you made that was important to you.

Ruth: Oh, yes. And I was just trying to make the point I don't lean on him. I don't want him to have to support me emotionally.

Jo: Yes, I heard that. That's important to you.

Ruth: I don't want him to have that kind of a burden on his psyche at this point in life. This has really been amazing. This has been very helpful.

Jo: Well, good. I'm aware that we had the phone call that took away about a minute and that we only have a little bit of time left so maybe it would be a good place to stop if it's OK with you. I appreciate your talking so openly.

Ruth: I appreciate what you do.

Jo: Good, good.

PART III.

FOLLOW-UP DISCUSSION WITH JO, RUTH AND PAULA

Jo: We'll take a couple minutes and maybe, Ruth, you could share what you found to be the most useful elements of it, or maybe anything you felt was limiting or didn't feel right. How does that sound?

Ruth: Well, I hadn't really thought ahead about this at all and I was not projecting into the future what would happen and I just decided to come in the same state of confusion I'm always in. You really helped me sort out things in terms of this whole thing about my fear. I hadn't really crystallized that before.

Jo: It seems a lot clearer, precisely what you are afraid of?

Ruth: Yes.

Jo: I felt that the words "the fear" "the discouraged" and "the worried" were the three elements of it that when the emotion was given voice to-when we found words to describe precisely what it was, not only what it was about but precisely the emotions about that-that felt a shift for me; like there were actually three different elements at least and primarily the fear and the discouraged and then you add worry. We really didn't get into that but maybe there's a little bit more around that - but that felt like it shifted me.

Ruth: Well, that's the key-I think the fact of giving words to it. Somehow it was just all a jumble and I guess when a lot's going on in your life, it's sometimes hard to sort out the threats and this was helpful in helping me sort them out which, somehow, I haven't been as successful in doing on my own. So I have a better idea now as to exactly what I'm looking at.

Jo: As part of the barrier or something to making choicesbecause .....

Ruth: It's just the awareness of the question, the obstacles or whatever was helpful just to define the problem.

Jo: Obviously we only had a half hour to do it, but I was wondering if you thought that it might be possible, if given more time, that you would come to make a decision about what you want to do or whether that wouldn't be important in the process or what you feel about that.

Client-Centered Career Counseling

Ruth: Well, for me I like to make decisions. I have to bring something to a closure and I've spent years sometimes trying to make decisions, but at the end I know that I will decide something and I don't need to rush it. I know I am going lo give myself all the time I need to take and what you helped me to do, what I want to do is just become aware of whatever the picture is so that I have all the pieces so that I could look at everything.

Jo: Maybe this would change if you weren't as insightful or introspective or as verbal a client, but my sense was that it wouldn't take us too long, like eons of sessions, for you to not necessarily make a decision - this is the population I will work with; this is what I'm going to do-but just to get enough clarification about the pros and cons of each or where I'm heading-that there be enough clarity for you.

Ruth: That's what I feel too.

Jo: Any obstacles or anything I did that was grating or didn't quite fit or disturbing?

Ruth: No. I thought that you, in rephrasing what I was saying, I was able to look at it somehow clearer. I was able to see it clearer. By hearing you say it, helped me to hear myself clearer.

Jo: There was one point where I was a little bit concerned that I might be putting words in your mouth. I can't remember when. I have to listen back. I didn't feel strongly that way but I thought that I might be a little off and be uncomfortable.

Ruth: I don't remember feeling that way but what I was feeling when you were talking was that you were hearing me and that if I had to correct something that you heard, there was no problem with it- that was all right. Or, if I was clarifying something that you were saying that was just....

Jo: Well, my memory is that you corrected me immediately and you clarified it for me. We'll have to look back and see.

Paula: Did you ever wonder what Jo might be thinking as you were talking?

Ruth: No. I never had that thought. I felt totally in the moment with just trying lo answer what she was asking me and checking in with myself making sure whatever words I was saying were authentic and genuine and that I wasn't creating or that I was trying to really check in with what she was asking. But for me it was very interesting because I haven't had ever this kind of session because the approach I was in when I was in therapy was very different - well, it was Jungian and we did a lot of dream work. It was kind of a different thing but this reflective, I've never experienced that before although I've done some work with that with clients in internship. But it's really wonderful. It feels very good.

Jo: To really hear yourself?

Ruth: To be heard.

Jo: Good. I'm glad.

Ruth: I appreciate it.

Paula: Ruth, did you experience over the time that you all were working - I noticed it a little bit-any shifts within yourself that you felt closer to yourself? I was wondering because you said I kept checking in with myself if that quality of experience shifted at any point for you. I didn't quite know if you were aware of it.

Ruth: Well, it was very interesting when I started talking about my mother that I didn't realize I was going to say anything about my mother and listening I had this strange feeling I'm talking about my mother. I didn't realize that she played this role. I wasn't quite aware.

Jo Cohen, Ruth Hassan & Paula Bickman

Jo: Even though it was an unplanned session and you deliberately didn't want to plan it, you certainly wouldn't have anticipated that that would have come up. So, it was a shift in a way of surprise. Here I am talking about my mother. This is strange. I couldn't have anticipated it.

Ruth: I would never have thought I would be talking about my mother.

Jo: It was some sort of a shift there - a surprise element - her importance, her values and thoughts.

Ruth: I realized how deep that internalization I never really put it together, that this was a core of fear, until now. But see, my mother is very much alive through my cousin Hallie in Chicago that I talk to quite a lot who kind of represents my mother and she calls me periodically and checks on me to see how far off the path I'm going at any particular moment sol have this constant check and it's sort of like confronting the parental values, my mother's values. It's confronting them every time she calls even though we have these pleasant conversations.

Jo: So she's alive very much in you and you knew that but you didn't think it was as strong but she also continues to live on through Hallie in terms of the representation of value through Hallie's opinions.

Ruth: Well, to a degree. There is a certain amount of denial in my family. There is protection of the family name to the exclusion of getting to truth. There was this big scandal that came up this summer. Somebody called up saying that there was this child and the priest - I thought it was hysterical that no one shared my point of view and my idea was let's figure out was this true. Everyone said, "Why?" Let's not talk about this. Let's just forget that this ever happened and cover it up and forget about it. So this is a certain pattern you see that 1 don't quite go along with.

Jo: So you don't subscribe to it and you get rebuffed if you do.

Ruth: I'm some kind of a traitor to....

Jo:. . . the clan.

Ruth: the clan, that's right, which must be protected at all costs.

Paula: Ruth, what was your most important learning that came out of today?

Ruth: I think learning exactly what the dilemma is.

Paula: The conflict and fear?

Ruth: Yes, and realizing choices, upcoming choices that are going to be impacted by this two-pronged pull and I think if I am conscious of the darkness that it becomes light so it helps.

Paula: Jo, I am kind of wondering if there was anything that you experienced sitting with Ruth that you didn't say or comment on that you are aware of but. . . .

Jo: Maybe, I don't remember something I felt strongly about - like that I wanted to say but didn't. I think I commented my hearing how excited and exuberant you felt working with teens. I think I said that and I could feel the good work that you felt that you did over the internship and how that ii was really good but it didn't seem to be your pace - it didn't bring you as much enthusiasm or excitement. I think I said that. Maybe a moment, where there was some sadness over the loss of your mom, but I didn't feel that so strong and didn't think you were really into that and you were at a different place and didn't want to get into that, because of the agenda that we had. Perhaps had we been in a counseling relationship where we wouldn't have been wanting to do a demonstration interview you would have gone on that path, I don't know.

Ruth: No.

Client-Centered Career Counseling

Jo: But I didn't feel that was strong nor did I feel like I was neglecting something in that for the sake of the agenda.

Ruth: I didn't feel that either that there was any sacrifice with that.

Jo: I heard that your wanting to make sure that I understood that you didn't want to put your son in a position of support (I think I might have been misunderstood or expressed myself unclearly). You corrected me so there was no problem and then I think I clarified that and I wanted you to know that I did understand that. I think it was an important value for you to not put your son in that position.

Ruth: That was the moment now that you were reminding me that I think about now. I think I was saying that this was my ideal - not to put him in that position but sometimes I might do that but sort of speaking it out loud is reaffirming my commitment to try not to do that but sometimes it might happen. But it's something I want to avoid strongly any time I'm aware I might be going in that direction.

Jo: To try to encourage him to be a supportive person toward you rather than to naturally express himself genuinely which might be in the direction of not supporting you.

Ruth: Yes, I want him to express himself genuinely and if he disagrees with me, I want him to come out and say it and he does. He is very forthright so I figure I give him the leeway to disagree with me and I listen to him. He makes some good points.

Jo: You had talked some about his being flexible and you have an openness to hearing him knowing that he is flexible you feel trusting of allowing him to go places that you might otherwise be inclined to put up a blockade to.

Ruth: Right. Because he's very perceptive and it's also because I respect him and teenagers in general, you know, I figure that there's a lot to learn there and I've run into kids in my class room that I felt they are at a higher level than I am and they are very evolved people and just younger and sometimes you can learn a whole lot and I feel that way about him-without relinquishing that parental role.

Jo: Yes, well I feel we could go for another hour- it's important to you... but we won't do that.

PART IV.

COMMENTARY BY PAULA

In this career interview with Jo and Ruth, I would like to comment on two parts of the session I that stand out to me. One is the development of the theme in the session and the second is the clients' deepening experience of congruence.

For myself, there is an experience of amazement, excitement and awe when observing how a I client's concern moves within a phenomenological theme during a session, beginning with the part that is clear and known, and then moving into the more nebulous and on-the-edge-ofawareness experience. At the beginning of the session, Ruth focuses on a current career question of what direction to pursue now that she is completing her counseling Master's degree. During her internship placement, she felt accessible working with an older population but is more drawn to working with adolescence. Her enthusiasm for teenagers is noticeable as she describes feeling challenged, spontaneous, being able to make a difference, and "the fact that it feels like, like | you're touching the future."

As Ruth speaks about this path of her heart, her aliveness increases. She contacts the part of I herself that is clear to her and reflects what she values. I experienced her in this moment as solid, sure, moving toward a deeper state of congruence and providing internal support for herself.

Jo Cohen, Ruth Hassan & Paula Bickman

Then a shift in the interview occurred. Up to this point Ruth focused on the topic of working with adolescence, a time in the developmental cycle that deals with emerging identity. Now the phenomenological theme turns to the establishment of her own identity in relationship to others. Ruth begins to explore the conflict of others' expectations of her and her coping with this type of pressure. I hear Ruth asking, how can I be myself and still be connected with my family? Ruth acknowledges that previous decisions have been based on others' value systems, at times, these choices being made without full awareness. She wonders if she will repeat these behaviors, "That's the scary thing to me because I'm so afraid that I'm going to make a decision based on her (mother's) values."

Jo consistently connects empathically with the client's world, helping Ruth to remain congruent with her experience of discomfort at not always being certain what voice is authentically her own. By staying with Ruth's ongoing experience, the therapist facilitates the client's continuing to clarify her identity and strengthens her ability to distinguish her voice from others. Ruth recounts new behavior with family members and envisions a future in which she is more congruent with herself, with her values, and with others. Still there is ambivalence about succumbing to family pressure as she slates, "I'm not willing to sacrifice my life for it, but I'm scared that I will."

On one hand, Ruth is worried about not having the awareness or courage to follow that which is most truly herself. On the other, there is a determination to move ahead with a congruent lifestyle.

As Ruth contacts different aspects of the conflict, I am struck that she does so without a sense of self judgment. I believe her ability to suspend self criticism facilitates the fluidity of her being able to move from one position to another, the process itself contributing to her sense of identity and connection with an internal experience of congruence.

Following the session, as Jo and Ruth process their experiences, I asked Ruth if she ever wondered what Jo might be thinking as Ruth was talking during the session. I was curious to know if Jo's presence had influenced her choices, recapitulating the experience of pleasing others. What came forward was Ruth's describing her experience with Jo as being "totally in the moment checking in with myself, making sure whatever words I was saying were authentic and genuine and that 1 wasn't creating." The relationship with Jo facilitated Ruth's contacting and strengthening an inner experience of congruence.

As the self-actualization tendency flows throughout the lifespan, we have opportunity to shift towards more integrated and ongoing experiences of congruence. Coming into contact with authenticity may impact our relationship with self, with others, and with our career path. At mid-life, as in Ruth's case, we may reenter a place of exploration regarding identity in relationship to others and the impact of these relationships on career choice. Connecting with and voicing our uniqueness and our distinctiveness from others, strengthens our identity and sense of commitment.

PART V.

COMMENTARY BY RUTH

Reading back and recalling the session, there are a few points I wish to clarify and comment upon. In the follow-up discussion, Paula asked if I recognized a shift at any point. I realize that one came when talking about Christmas, more so than at any other time. Christmas of 1996 was very pivotal for me because for the first time, I really did act like a grown-up within the family gathering, instead of "little Ruthie." And things have not been the same since. And I can't go back to the way it was. That is a source of relief (I broke free) and pain and anxiety at the same time (my family is not as happy with me).

The topic of ray mother is certainly not one that has not been previously addressed by me in therapy. Indeed, it was one of the major themes with my previous therapist who practiced out of a

Client-Centered CareerCounseling

Jungian tradition. What I had not done, previous to the current session, was to connect my current decision making regarding careen to my relationship with my mother. I believed that I had worked through issues with my mother long ago. I realized in reviewing the session that some of these "mother issues" were still alive. I dislike that within the session it sounds as though I blame my mother for pressuring me into adopting her values. For instance, I appear to blame her for the factthatIstayedwithmy husband. The truth is, I know that she would have supported me no matter what. She was a feisty woman who believed in women's independence. Staying with my husband had more to do with feelings of shame, unworthiness, and fears of abandonment originating in my infancy and early childhood.

Also, concerning my mother's death, in our follow-up dialogue you allude to us maybe talking more about that if the interview had not been for demonstration purposes. I respond with an emphatic "No," meaning at the time I would not have done so. I was definitive because at that time I hadn't yet felt her death, despite the fact that I went through it with her. It has really hit me only within the past few months.

Comparing Rogerianand Jungiantherapy effects upon me I would say that the former drew memore into focus with my own thought processes while less cognizant of alternative viewpoints. I stayed very close to my own internal progression without any steering one way or another. Jo stayed more "invisible,” becoming more of a mirror a mirror that I might not have held up so steadily before. I was able to see conflicts and so forth more clearly, and to then sort out the threads and come to some conclusions. The process seemed clear and easy to understand; and it was an efficient one for me as it rather quickly resulted in clarity regarding the career issue. The process drew out the salient pieces of information I needed to look at regarding a career decision. Jo's mirroring helped me to focus on what was relevant.

An outcome that I attribute to the session is that I know now that I do not want to work with the partial hospitalization population, or with people experiencing psychoses of a very serious nature, and that I would be satisfied working with families, couples, individuals; in a high-school guidance office; or even back in the classroom teaching.

It is also interesting to me to note how I “correct” problems I have confronting my family through my firm commitment a different kind of dialogue with my son. As a result of the session I realize more clearly why that commitment feels important to me.

REFERENCES

Borman, C. A., & Dickson, M. A (1991). A career counseling model. Texas Association for Counseling and Development Journal, 19(1), 13-21.

Bozarth, J. D., & Fisher. R. (1990) Person-centered career counseling. In W. B. Walsh & S. H. Osipow (Ed.), Career counseling, contemporary topics in vocational psychology (pp. 45-77). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Freeman, S. C. (1990). C. H. Patterson on client-centered career counseling: An interview. The Career Development

Quarterly, 38(4), 291-301.

Miller, M. J. (1998a). Client-centered reflections on career decision making. Journal of Employment Counseling, 33(1),
43-45.
Miller, M. J. (1988b). Restarting a client-centered approach to career counseling. Journal of Employment Counseling,
25(2), 64-69.
Parsons, F. (1909).Choosing a vocation. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Patterson, C. H. (1971). AN INTRODUCTION to counselingin the school. New York: Harper and Row.
Patterson, C. H., & Watkins, C. E (1982). Some essentials of a client-centered approach to assessment. Measurement and

Evaluation in Guidance. 15 (1) 103-106.

Rogers, C. R. (1946). Psychometric tests and client-centered counseling. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 6,139-144.

Super, D. E. (1957). The psychology of careers, (pp. 184-197; 307-309). New York: Harper & Row.

61 Jo Cohen, Ruth Hassan & Paula Bickman

Super, D. E. (1988). Vocational adjustment: Implementing a self-concept. The Career Development Quarterly, 36(4), 351

351. Reprinted from Occupations, 30(3) 88-92 (November, 1950).

Correction to:

CARL ROGERS IN DIALOGUE WITH MARTIN BUBER: A NEW ANALYSIS

Kenneth N. Cissna Rob Andersen

The article by Kenneth N. Cissna and Rob Anderson, "Carl Rogers in Dialogue with Martin Buber: A New Analysis," which appeared in the Fall, 1997 issue of The Person-Centered Journal (volume 4, number 2, pages 4-13) was printed without most of the notes that accompanied it. The one note that was printed contained errors. The original essay, a book chapter that we reprinted, contained five endnotes, lo which the authors added two short footnotes for The Person-Centered Journal. The correct notes appear below. We first note the location of each missing note, quote briefly from the sentence in which the note appeared, and then produce the correct note.

page 4, title

"Carl Rogers in Dialogue with Martin Buber: A New Analysis*"

Reprinted from Martin Buber and the Human Sciences edited by Maurice Friedman by permission of the State University of New York Press (c) 1996. The title has been changed, the opening paragraph revised, and a few minor changes made. Readers may also be interested in these authors' new book, The Martin Buber-Carl Rogers Dialogue: A New Transcript with Commentary, also available from the State University of New York Press (1997), Requests for reprints should be addressed to Kenneth N. Cissna, Department of Communication, CIS 1040, University of South Florida, Tampa FL 33620-7800 (kcissna@Luna.cas.usf.edu).

page 4, paragraph 1, lines 3-6

"we summarize our studies of one of these remarkable conversations... between Carl Rogers and the philosopher of dialogue Martin Buber. "

¹Our thanks to Professor John Stewart for providing us a copy of the audiotape of the Buber-Rogers dialogue and helping us revise this essay. Maurice Friedman also encouraged us in this project, shared his impressions of the event, and helped us refine our analysis. Thanks to the staffs of the Martin Buber Archives al the Jewish National and University Library; the Michigan Historical Collection at the Bentley Historical Library and the Harlan Hatcher Graduate Library, both of the University of Michigan; The Carl R. Rogers Collection at the Library of Congress; and especially Nel Kandel and Avis Johnson of the Carl Rogers Memorial Library at the Center for Studies of the Person. The authors also acknowledge the assistance of their institutions in providing research support for this project. Both authors contributed equally to this study.

Kenneth N. Cissna & Rob Anderson

page 4, paragraph 3, lines 5-7

"We focused temporarily on the Buber-Rogers dialogue in our paper for the 1991 Buber conference* and became captivated by the rich implications of this one conversation." *Our work on the Buber-Rogers dialogue began with a paper, "The Buber-Rogers Dialogue: Studying the Influence of Role, Audience, and Style," which we presented at Maurice Friedman's international, interdisciplinary conference, "Martin Buber: His Impact on the Human Sciences," at San Diego State University, 1991. The book (Friedman, 1996) in which this essay (Cissna & Anderson, 1996) first appeared was a product of that conference.

page 6, paragraph 2, p. 5, lines 3-6

"[Friedman] also prescribed the roles of Buber and Rogers very clearly: 'And the form of this dialogue will be that Dr. Rogers will himself raise questions with Dr. Buber, and Dr. Buber will respond, and perhaps with a question, perhaps with a statement.^{’2, .3
“}

²The ground rules for this event were given to Friedman by DeWitt Baldwin, who ran the conference (Friedman, personal communication, December 14, 1991)

³ Our quotations from and references to the dialogue are from the transcript we produced from the audiotape rather than from any of the published transcripts (Buber, 1965; "Dialogue Between," 1960; Friedman, 1964; Kirschenbaum & Henderson, 1989), or from the original typescript of the dialogue circulated by Rogers ("Dialogue Between," n,d.). We found that much has been omitted and some statements changed in the earlier transcripts; several changes are very significant and alter our interpretations of what Buber and Rogers meant. We do not claim that our transcript is "correct"; by the standards of contemporary conversation analysis, a transcript of this ninety-minute discussion would require a small volume. Specifically, we have added speaking turns, noted audible material no! in the transcript, and restored original language where it had been changed. We found some lengthy pauses where none were indicated, and found some indicated pauses quite short. Sometimes we did not hear the same emphasis as one finds indicated by italics. To examine the whole transcript, a reader should consult our recent book (Anderson & Cissna, 1997).

page 6, paragraph 4, lines 3-6

"The highlights of Buber's response included...(b) Buber's description of a crucial autobiographical episode that was so personal he never was able to write about it⁴...."

⁴We are referring to the barbaric killing of his friend Gustav Landauer at the end of World War I. Friedman identifies it as one of the three most important events in Buber's life. To the end of his life Buber was "preoccupied" by it and, despite Friedman's urging, "too close to this event to be able to write about it." Although in the dialogue he does not mention Landauer by name, describing him only as "a great friend," he never wrote about this episode and apparently spoke publicly about it and its impact on him only in this dialogue with Rogers (see Friedman, 1983a, pp. 257-258; 1991,pp. 114-115).

page 6, paragraph 5, lines 2-3

"Rogers reported that an hour or so before the dialogue Buber had mentioned that his sponsors had 'told him not to speak with Rogers about psychotherapy.'⁵"

⁵If the reader finds this statement perplexing, perhaps Rogers also was surprised at the time. Actually, the dialogue was almost cancelled. Leslie Farber, then chairman of the Washington School of Psychiatry, suggested lo DeWitt Baldwin that the dialogue be omitted because, Baldwin reported in a letter to Buber, it "would concern itself with psychiatry [and] he felt that this subject should be left with your Seminars in Washington since the Washington School of Psychiatry was paying your expenses to this country and paying an honorarium" (Baldwin, 1957b).

Corrections to "Rogers and Buber"

The correspondence from Baldwin to Buber also showed something of how the topics for the dialogue evolved. In an earlier letter, Baldwin suggested that the dialogue deal "primarily with what you have found out about men and how to affect better hum an relations" (Baldwin, I957a). In letters to Buber and Rogers dated nine days before the conference began, Baldwin confirmed Rogers's suggestion that the dialogue concern "the nature of man as revealed in inter-personal relationship" (Baldwin 1957c, 1957d). Surely Rogers would have wondered how psychotherapy could be excluded from such topics.

Editorial Note:

It is with deep regret that the omissions and corrections were necessary. I am grateful to the authors for their forebearance and continued work to correct these errors and therefore more clearly reflect the high quality of their work.

BOOK REVIEWS

Successful Psychotherapy: A caring, loving relationship.

by C. H. Patterson and Suzanne Hidore.

Jason Aronson, Inc. Northvale NJ, 1997.

I wear two hats. First, I am a client-centered/person-centered therapist at heart. Second, I am a member of the Society for the Exploration of Psychotherapy Integration. Since this book attempts to provide a universal system for psychotherapy it is both a statement of person-centered principles, and an attempt at psychotherapy integration. I will look at it from these two perspectives.

From the perspective of client-centered/person-centered theory, this book is a comprehensive and eloquent statement of person-centered beliefs about psychotherapy, and I highly recommend it. The book begins by defining psychotherapy as "... a psychological relationship between a person or persons, designated as the clients, whose progress in self-actualization has been blocked or impeded by the absence of good interpersonal relationships; and a person, designated as the therapist, who provides such a relationship" (p. xiii). The authors use Carl Rogers' 1957 "necessary and sufficient conditions" article as a starting point to develop what they claim is a universal system of psychotherapy. They point out that this book adopts a position in contrast to the dominant "specific treatments" view of the therapist as a diagnosing, prescribing expert who actively intervenes with differential techniques for different disorders.

In the first chapter in the book, "Chaos in Psychotherapy," they consider the current state of the field. They argue that there is no evidence to support the "specific treatments" paradigm. They then move on to consider the psychotherapy integration movement. They argue that most advocates of psychotherapy integration do not have as a goal the development of a universal system of psychotherapy. Many, instead, advocate eclecticism, which is the use of a variety of techniques and ideas borrowed from different theoretical perspectives. Research has shown that a plurality of practicing therapists today identify themselves as eclectic, but the authors note that eclecticism is not a well-defined idea. While some systems have been worked out for eclectic practice, they have not been empirically supported as of yet. Others who practice eclectically utilize a haphazard mix of techniques and ideas with no clear guiding framework.

They then move on to consider the "common factors" solution to psychotherapy integration -the idea that different therapies work because of common underlying factors that occur in all of them. They focus on one common factor-the relationship between therapist and client—and argue that there is considerable evidence that this is not only a powerful facilitator of change in therapy, but the most powerful facilitator. From this they move on to argue for self-actualization at the core, common universal motive underlying all behavior. They perform a real service here by countering objections raised by those who do not really understand the idea of self-actualization - it is not selfish and self-centered, it is not anti-social, and it does not promote unbridled self

Book Reviews

ividual freedom. Rather, self-actualization involves a movement towards others, and an integration of aims and desires with others, because of a built-in human need for affiliation and communication.

Patterson and Hidore next argue that if there were a common etiology to all psychological problems, then there would be no need to develop specific therapies for specific disorders. Instead a common therapy that was most effective in dealing with this common underlying etiology could be utilized. They argue that the ultimate goal of all psychotherapy is self-actualization, and that the lack of good interpersonal relationships is the underlying common etiology of problems because that gets in the way of the self-actualization process. Bad interpersonal relationships lead to low self-esteem and defensiveness. When an individual is primarily concerned with defending the self, then that individual cannot he open to all available information which might help her/him solve a problem and gets stuck in a rigid self-protective stance and is less likely to be able to flu-idly adapt. Helping people self-actualize means helping them become more open and nondefensive, more fluid and able to creatively re-evaluate old ways of being and change to deal with new situations and new information, and become more open to and trusting of their own organism,

The "cure" for the common etiology of lack of a good interpersonal relationship is to provide one, A good interpersonal relationship is one characterized by respect (warmth, unconditional positive regard, caring, etc., empathic understanding, and genuineness. At a basic level, the authors see this as the provision of love. They review what it means to be respectful and caring, empathically understanding, and genuine. In so doing they make distinctions important to clarifying these notions to those who have criticized them. For instance, respect/unconditional positive regard does not mean one uncritically likes or approves of everything or anything a person does. What it means is holding a genuine respect and caring for the underlying person even though they don't always behave in ways one agrees with/approves of.

In the next chapter the authors go on to consider other conditions for successful therapy which have been proposed (primarily by Carkhuff and his colleagues): confrontation, self-disclosure, immediacy, and concreteness. They note that these conditions arc not necessary to successful therapy, must be subordinated to the three basic therapeutic conditions, but can on occasion be helpful. They provide a service in clarifying what helpful confrontation really is (it is not an attack on the other person), as well as what helpful self-disclosure and immediacy are.

They then move on to a consideration of the client's role in therapy, noting that the client is the primary change agent. From that they move on to a consideration of multicultural factors in therapy. After reviewing a number of notions that have been proposed about doing therapy from a multicultural perspective, they argue that there is really no reason to change their basic therapeutic stance on the basis of multicultural factors. While research consistently has found that ethnic minority clients prefer therapists who are directive, the authors note that this is a preference, not a requirement. Further they note that such clients also want the basic therapeutic conditions: to be respected, to be cared about, to be understood, and lo be related to in a genuine fashion. Based on this, they see no reason that their model of therapy should be modified to take cultural considerations into account (i.e., by the therapist being more directive and prescriptive),

I found their discussion here both illuminating and frustrating. 1 think they make an important point in arguing that people of all cultural and ethnic backgrounds want warm, empathic, and genuine relationships. Further, 1 agree that we may be shortchanging clients in assuming that because of their ethnic background they "need" directive therapists. A study by Barbara Lemer long ago found that lower class clients, presumably not able to utilize verbal insight therapy, did quite well with client-centered and psychodynamic therapists. In fact, in my experience as a teacher of graduate students of various ethnic backgrounds,) have come to believe that the personal relationship may be more important to individuals who come out of sociocentric cultures,

Book Reviews

in contrast to those who have come out of Euroamerican egocentric cultures. Two Hispanic graduate students a few years ago alerted me to the western bias in some of our ideas about dual relationships and boundaries. They noted that rural Mexican clients expected much more personal involvement, and were put off if they didn't get it, than is

mandated by our current rules which stipulate therapists maintaining a good deal of interpersonal distance from their clients (e.g, you are not even supposed to attend their wedding!).

At the same time I felt this was one area where the book failed to deliver. I am glad that the authors point out that clients of different cultural backgrounds also want the basic therapeutic conditions. But I do not think they adequately answer the objection that clients from ethnic minority groups often want more directive therapists. Again, I train a lot of therapists from ethnic minority backgrounds, and they do report that people from their communities do expect the professional to adopt more of a directive stance, and they are more comfortable when the therapist does so. The problem is broader than with mulitcultural counseling. There are clients in general who want a more active, "directive" approach than is offered by a traditional client-centered therapist. The question is: if we are to "follow the client," and the client wants us to be more directive, should we not be more "directive"? Am I not "rigidly" imposing my frame of reference on the client if I, in the name of my theory, refuse to be directive when they want me to? Who is running therapy then, me or the client? For me, this presents one of the enduring dilemmas of therapy. I would like to believe there is an "and" here rather than an either/or: we can adopt a more active, "directive" stance and still believe the client is the leader, the creator, and the self-healer. But I have yet to figure out a coherent way to do this. And I do not believe that Patterson and Hidore adequately answer this either.

In some sense, they define the problem away. By defining psychotherapy as they do as the provision of a good relationship to people who are not self-actualizing because they did not have good relationships in the past, therapy ipso facto becomes the provision of a relationship whose goal is self-actualization. Any other way of viewing therapy, then, is no longer psychotherapy. For instance, more directive approaches are allowed to exist, but as education, not as psychotherapy. This is neat, may have some validity, but is also problematic (although personally I think it may be time that our field begins to distinguish between the different activities that have been lumped under the global appelation "psychotherapy"). It is problematic because many behavior-ists would argue that therapy is education. Marsha Linehan's dialectical behavior therapy for borderline personality disorder, for instance, largely consists of skills training. Her argument is that highly dysfunctional early childhoods led to a failure to develop a host of life skills such as communication skills, problem-solving skills, and emotional management skills. Seen this way, her "therapy" is to teach these skills. She, at least, and many others, would claim that the distinction between therapy and education is false, thus throwing us right back into the horns of the dilemma. If our clients want us to be more directive, can we do that and still be "therapeutic"? Again, I do not have the answer, but neither do the authors either.

Part of the problem, I think, is in the word "directive." If pose a simple dichotomy between directive and nondirective, and lump anything beside empathic following under the "directive" label then I think we miss more subtle distinctions. Patterson and Hidore get at this when they note that they prefer the term "noncontrolling" to "nondirective." I don't like being directive at all, but I do like being "suggestive" at times. I see classical empathically following nondirective therapy as a beautiful, pure, almost Platonic ideal form of providing a context for client growth and self-actualization. But in my experience as a therapist and trainer of therapists, some clients clearly "want" the therapist to do more than empathically follow. As Patterson and Hidore point out, empathic following and responding is not a passive procedure, but rather is highly active. Nonetheless, it is comparatively inactive compared to therapists who more actively structure, suggest techniques, over interpretations, and so on. For some time I have struggled with the dilemma that

Book Reviews

not only do some clients want this, but they really want it, i.e. they actively want the therapist to do "more" than empathically follow. Some clients want someone who they perceive "challenges" them more than a therapist who primarily listens and empathically reflects. Furthermore, they in no way lose their autonomy when the therapist is more active in the ways I have identified above. To the contrary, it seems to mobilize them to actively think, experience, and work things out for themselves. If the therapist is not controlling, there simply is no evidence that these clients are being somehow hindered and oppressed by the therapist's taking a much more "active" role. I now believe that we should respect clients' "personal styles" and wishes in this regard. (One such "client" is a colleague of mine, a person who adheres to person-centered philosophy and primarily practices in a relatively pure client-centered way. Yet when she sees a therapist she wants the therapist to argue with her, debate with her, express opinions, suggest techniques, and so on, while respecting her self-directed growth process and autonomy. In no way does an active, "directive" therapist squelch her self-directed growth process. To the contrary, it seems to contribute toil.

The issue then becomes: can one adopt a much more "active, directive" stance and still honor the principles of client-centered/person-centered therapy? I realize that this has been an ongoing debate in our field for a number of years, and no resolution is in sight. I believe the answer is "yes," but have yet to clearly work it out for myself. Partly, I believe the answer may lie in making the same altitude-behavior distinction we have made with regard to empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard. Following Rogers, most of us see those as attitudes rather than behaviors, and reject the efforts of those who tried to reduce them to particular ways of behaviorally responding (see Bozarth, 1997 for a discussion with respect to empathy). Is it possible that we could think of the nondirective altitude as an attitude, and distinguish it from some set of behaviors which we call "being nondirective?" If so, then it is possible to express nondirectiveness in a variety of ways, and, I suspect, be able to be nondirective while giving advice, suggesting techniques, offering interpretations, and so on. This fits with Patterson's and Hidore's distinction between nondirectiveness and noncontrollingness. That is, what may be more important than the particular mode of response is whether it is offered in a noncontrolling fashion, or whether it is given as the voice of truth from above. If this distinction makes sense, then it may be possible to act more "directively" (in the sense of providing more structure, offering advice and techniques, and so forth) while still believing that the client is the true leader in therapy, and the real change agent. Therapeutic dialogue, then, becomes a true give and take, of which empathic following may be a more or less significant component, depending on the nature of the dialogue with any given client. Therapists could then be more "directive" with clients who want that in their service, just as if you hired a personal exercise trainer and then told him or her "Now tell me when I'm doing it wrong!" The issue is important, I think, because we need to find ways of offering technology in a human, respectful way, in a world where consumers are increasingly being brainwashed or forced to demand technology rather than truly human psychotherapy. In any case, while I felt Patterson and Hidore did an excellent job of defending a rationale for doing client-centered therapy "as usual" with multicultural clients, they did not really deal with the question of clients' preferring more directive therapists.

Moving on from this thorny issue, Patterson and Hidore conclude the book by arguing that love can provide primary prevention to the development of psychological problems, and by providing several case histories.

As an eloquent, well-reasoned and researched defense of a person-centered approach to psychotherapy, I think this book is highly informative, and I strongly recommend it. Turning to my other "hat," that of an integrative psychotherapist, I still think the book is highly provocative and well worth reading, but more problematic. I think it provides a strong positive case for the thesis that client-centered therapy may provide the basis for a universal system of therapy. But only

Book Reviews

"may". Many objections come to mind. First, while the authors have a right to define therapy as they wish, and to exclude things they do not think of as "therapy," this, I think weakens then-claim to have come up with a universal system of therapy. As I have noted, many behaviorists would argue that therapy is the educational training of life skills, and this is entirely excluded under the authors' rubric. Second, I can imagine some of my psychoanalytic colleagues reading this and wondering where are considerations of transference, repression, interpretation, and so on. Similarly, my cognitive-behavioral colleagues would read it and wonder why there is no mention of dysfunctional schemas or the use of homework to challenge dysfunctional thoughts. Finally, my process-experiential colleagues would wonder why there is no mention of the systematic use of role-play, focusing, or evocative reflections. They all might join in arguing that all the authors have done is claim that Rogerian therapy is "the" universal therapy, and they may counter by claiming that their point of view is "the" universal therapy (this has, in fact, already been claimed by some cognitive therapists). They might even argue (and some have) that they agree that the therapist should be warm, empathic and genuine, but that this can be subsumed in their framework, which is, in fact, "the" universal system of psychotherapy. Some of the cognitive-behaviorists would go on to dispute the claim that research has not shown differential effects of differential treatments. They would refer to the recent "empirically validated treatments" document from Division 12 of the American Psychological Association, which purports to document around 50 studies showing differential treatment effects, almost always in favor of cognitive-behavioral treatments. Ultimately, I think, they would argue that a truly universal system of psychotherapy would incorporate insights from all the approaches, and this has not yet been achieved, primarily because of differing epistemological assumptions among the differing approaches. In sum, I think my colleagues, while finding this book provocative, would ultimately not be persuaded. At the same time, I would hope they would read this book because I think it does provide "a" universal model of therapy, if not "the" universal model of therapy.

Thus: should you read this book? If you are a client-centered/person-centered therapist, yes. It spells out the relationship/actualization model in a clear, coherent, well-reasoned manner. If you are a therapist interested in psychotherapy integration, the answer also is "yes." It provides a provocative argument. You might not end up agreeing with it, but it will get you to think, and, at the very least, I would hope take more seriously active client self-healing potential and the power of the relationship.

REFERENCES

Bozarth, J. D. (1997). Empathy from the framework of client-centered theory and the Rogerian hypothesis. In A. C. Bohart & L. S. Greenberg(Eds.). Empathy Reconsidered, (pp. 81-102). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.

Reviewed by Arthur C. Bohart

Book Reviews

The psychotherapy of Carl Rogers: Cases and commentary.

Farber, B. A., Brink, D. C., & Raskin, P. M. (Eds.).
New York: Guilford (1996).

A virtuous emperor was much affected to find his actions misconstrued. — Addison

An exciting book for the person-centered enthusiast or explorer. Farber, Brink and Raskin's edited work begins with an overview of Rogerian principles, including common misconstruals and Rogers' own remarks regarding them. The introduction is itself a useful recommended reading for counseling fundamentals or counseling theories students beginning to explore the meaning of person-centered therapy. Chapter one presents Brink and Farber's scheme of Rogers' clinical responses, two of which are 1) speaking in first person, and 2) congruent self disclosures. This model of person-centered therapy communications was introduced in discussion and through recommended reading to my master's level class in fundamentals of counseling. Several students chose to integrate Brink and Farber's response framework into their early practice. I believe that a number of students found the applications to be meaningful and useful in their practice of making contact, of understanding, of acceptance and of congruence with their "practice" clients.

Cases begin in chapter two. Chapters two through five are cases and commentary "from within." Individuals, many of them authors prior to this publication, offer thoughtful commentary and critique on the effectiveness, efficacy and purity of Rogers' approach in session. In Chapter two, Raskin remarks initially on several instances where Carl demonstrated a high level of congruency with the attitudes pronounced in his theory. Raskin also later states that Rogers failed in his ability to empathize with Loretta concerning her disappointments vis her relationship with her father. In chapter three, Zimring identifies instances where Rogers was not providing unconditional positive regard for his client, Gloria, and instead seemed to avoid recognizing negative aspects of her experience of self. In chapter four, "The Myth of Nondirectiveness: The Case of Jill,"Bowen assesses patterns of Rogers responding. She identifies the conditions under which Rogers seems willing to offer interpretations, and remarks upon his possible use of paradoxical exaggeration as a technique. Bowen challenges the readerto consider that Rogers' total forgiveness of the client's "misbehavior" before she forgave herself may have limited his capacity to allow her to explore her own attitudes about her behavior. The final cases "within" presented in chapter five are of Mary and Louise, two women whom Carl encountered during a weekend expressive therapy training program- an atypical context for Rogers to have "an encounter." Natiello's commentary instructs along several domains, one of which concerns the directiveness that appeared unusual for Carl, but which he nevertheless became highly focused upon. In these moments his responses diverged significantly away from his more client-directed stance. Natiello points out the possible directions, and unknown directions, that the women may have taken with a focus more committed to the clients own direction at specific"critical moments."

In chapters six through 10, "within" and "without" perspectives are shared. Reviewing a book this juicy requires tune -1 will focus on a small taste from "within" first. Here, the likes of Bozarth, B. T. Brodley, Cain, Dingman, and Seemanmake strong appearances. The insights they offer go beyond appearances, digging as with the first five chapters, to reveal the essence of Rogers' work and success with his clients. Brodley, for instance, identifies directivity by Rogers, in the "Anger and Hurt" client, that seemed inconsistent with her overall observations of Carl in session. She proceeds by analyzing nine additional transcribed interview sessions. Among other reported results, she observed that within the anger and hurt session, 22% of Rogers' responses

Book Reviews

could be classified as Carl-focused, compared to only 4.2% self-referred comments from his other nine sessions.

The "without" section, about 20% of the total text, includes a feminist theory response to Rogers' session with Sylvia. O'Hara (1996,p. 284) begins her commentary by quoting Horney in 1926 (p. 324), as saying," Psychoanalysis is the creation of a male genius, and almost all those who have developed his ideas have been men. It is only right and reasonable that they should evolve more easily a masculine psychology and understand more the development of men than women." In her analysis, O'Hara (1996, p. 287) reports obvious approval of Rogers' less reflective; more instructive stance (invitation?) for Sylvia to "go further along the path to a new order of mind by saying more about herself as a learner." In the final chapter, Adele Hayes and Marvin Goldfried deliver a cognitive-behavioral review of "The Case of Mark," contributing their own coding system to classify Rogers' responses. Their response class "Persons Involved," is separated into two parts: 1) client focused, and 2) other (acquaintances, strangers, others in general) focused. They observe Carl's focus on Mark to be present in 97% of his responses, while 73% of Carl's responses included a focus on others. Hayes and Goldfried explain that "Rogers had Mark explore what others thought of him and of the sociopolitical situation in South Africa, so that these views could be differentiated from his own." Seeman's person-centered analysis likewise identifies how Rogers' s entrance into Mark's world "in a phenomenological mode -... as lived by the client," enhanced the clients' "internal communication with self," and moreover, revealed the "emergence of two closely related themes, one having to do with Mark's struggle to define his relationship with other people and with the political system of which he is a part, and the other theme related to Mark's struggle to define himself within this system."

This book is rich. The editor/authors and contributors are to be commended. Sir Francis Bacon once said: Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some - too few - to be chewed and digested. This book is one of the latter.

Reviewed by

Jo Cohen, Ph.D.

Putting emotional intelligence to work.

David Ryback. (1998).
Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann. (1998)

In an age of leadership crisis, what are the core qualities of a good leader? The management literature is controversial on this subject, but Ryback's Putting Emotional Intelligence to Work offers a path through the confusion. How are intelligence and emotion related to success in managing people? And why is the ability to delay gratification so crucial?

The traumas of downsizing, rightsizing, re-engineering, outsourcing, etc. make up the sea of change that has rocked corporate America. It is refreshing, amid such chaos, to find a book that offers ways to "reinvent" oneself in relation to work and career. Based on the foundations set by Carl Rogers and Daniel Goleman, Ryback builds strategies for dealing with the new reality. The priority of feelings in communication, Ryback points out, can provide a breakthrough for managers aspiring to noteworthy success!

The author, an Atlanta consultant, translates well-known studies of leadership into the new context of emotional intelligence. Instead of theorizing, he uses well-blazed trails from extensive

Book Reviews

research and case literature. Some of these principles are found in the academic and business press if you dig for them, but the author makes them available as a buffet of practical tips.

A word of caution: Ryback uses the terms "emotional intelligence" and "executive intelligence" interchangeably. In Chapter 7, though, the equivalence is brought to full view. The book argues for balance between thinking and feeling, intellect and emotion, without denying the essential need for social skills.

A self-assessment test, called the Ryback Emotional Quotient Executive Survey (REQuES), is offered in the appendix. That way, you can measure your own need for use of the book's principles.

Reviewed byJohn H. Powell, Ph.D Oglethorpe University

SPECIAL SECTION

This section has been added with the intention of encouraging responses to articles and transcripts published in previous editions. It has also been added to encourage individuals to submit scholarly reflections of their experiences at person-centered and client-centered workshops and training programs. Additionally, this section has been added to encourage submission of manuscripts by students and practioners of creative works. It is the Association's intention to create an interactive journal promoting further development and growth in client-centered therapy and the person-centered approach.

A PLEA FOR UNDERSTANDING

by Thair R. Dieffenbach

Yes, I am getting older. It may take me awhile to get up from the sofa. I may not be able to hear as well as I did when I was younger- especially if there is a great deal of background noise. Yes, I may walk into a room and forget the reason I entered. I may misplace my keys, my hairbrush, and my glasses. I may forget where I was headed in a conversation, or I may travel to another subject.

Please do not talk as if I am not in the room. Do no talk behind my back or make faces that you think I do not see. When you start in this life your memory is like a clean chalkboard -every experience you have is carefully jotted down and easily retrieved. My "chalkboard" has been filling up for many years. The chalk has to overlap in order to fit. Sometimes when I go to retrieve something, it is tangled up with all the other information of my life.

If you rush me, or if you hover over me waiting to "catch" me forgetting, you only cause me undue stress and make my chalkboard wiggle and get out of focus.

I am not dumb, I am not a child. I continue to have opinions and much of my advice has been hard earned from the myriad of years that I have experienced on this fair earth. My body may fail me, my memory may fog, but my wisdom is still there if you will give me a chance.

When I was 30 and I forgot something, no one noticed. When I was 40 and forgot why I entered a room, no one dwelt on it. When I was 50 and lost my train of thought, it was because I had too much on my mind.

Please do not treat me differently because I am now 70, 80, 90 or 100+. I am still me and I still have a lot on my mind. In fact, I have more on my mind now, then before. My chalkboard may be crowded, but it is definitely not blank. Please remember that one day, if you are lucky, you may be my age and your treatment and behavior towards me will be a model for your children.

Please treat me with the respect that I deserve.

Special Section

PRETENSE

by Nicholas Mazza, Ph.D. Florida State University

pretense
is
the tool
that
pierces
and
inflates
in one round of thought

HAIKU POEMS

by Joe Utay Eastern Kentucky University

Orange Cool Glow of Morning Sky

Ooh, now that's pretty.
Orange cool glow of morning sky.
Pulls me to the source.

The Crisp Morning Air

The crisp morning air walks my dog every day. My wound watch walks me.

LANTERN POEMS

(A lantern is a style of poem which began in the 1930s. It has 5 lines of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 1 syllables.)

by Joe Utay Eastern Kentucky University

Love...

Love...
A door.
No, doorway.
No, passage way.
...Yeah.

Love Will Heal

Love
will heal
starting now
still and moving.
Watch!

What? Listen.

What?
Listen.
To nature?
Does nature speak?
Oh.

EDITORIAL: "WHO IN THE WORLD AM I?"

CARL ROGERS AND TRANSPERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY

John Keith Wood 13820 Jaguariuna, Brazil

WHAT IS TRANSPERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY?

A GRANDFATHER CLAUSE?

MEDIUMS & SPIRIT WORLD

OUTWARD OBSERVATION

INNER EXPERIENCE

AN APPROACH

NOTES